How Needham caused science to stop for a century and, among other things, the death of many patients whose hands and surgical tools the surgeons did not disinfect because of his theory and about Lazzaro Spallanzani: the man who knew how to look through a microscope
For the first part of the article, the spontaneous formation in the18
For a previous article on the same topic: the origin of life, spontaneous formation and the danger of intuition
Needham: scientist, priest, stubborn
Needham was born in 1713, and ordained as a Catholic priest in 1738, but his real love was for the natural sciences. He specialized in the use of various microscopes, and was the first Roman Catholic priest to be admitted as a member of the Royal Society of London. Buffon met Needham while in Paris in the XNUMXs, and the two immediately became good friends. From their collaboration emerged the same theory of 'organic molecules' and 'vegetable power'.
What was the theory based on?
In fact, the theory relied mainly on Buffon's ideas and Needham's rich imagination. Buffon had the extraordinary ability to take many pieces of information and turn them into a cohesive theory. Needham had another, much more common ability. He could take one data, and jump from it to far-reaching theories. An example of this can be seen in the description of one of the first experiments designed to support Needham and Buffon's theory. Nidham dipped seeds and grains in water, and after two weeks of waiting, he took one drop of the solution and observed it under the microscope lens. We can read in his reports about, "clouds of moving atoms, so small and so active... I am convinced that we have been able to see them under the microscope only because of their enormous quantity." He goes on to say that the movement of those microscopic bodies was not spontaneous or as a result of the movement of the liquid, but "from the effort of something abundant within the particle itself." These were the organic molecules of Buffon and Needham [C], and despite Needham's enthusiastic description, we can easily understand that these were nothing more than smaller than normal microorganisms. But Needham's uniqueness was that once he came up with a theory, he was not ready to abandon it no matter what.
To prove that animal molecules can be formed from inanimate matter, Nidham filled various bottles with hot and fine meat-sauce. He sealed the bottles with a cork, and placed them for several minutes on hot ashes in order to kill all the animolecules in the solution. After the bottles had cooled, he left them steam-sealed for several days, then drew off one drop of the cloudy liquid inside, and observed it under the microscope lens. He describes the thrill that gripped him when he discovered that the same drop,
“…full of life, [within it] microscopic animals of many dimensions, from the largest I have seen to the smallest. Even in the first drop I looked at, I saw a huge crowd of whole creatures, and they are full of life and spontaneous in all their movements..."
According to Needham, those animal molecules could not have been formed from organisms that already existed in the solution, or from the eggs they left in it. The high heat should have killed them. Needham repeated his experiments dozens of times, and all produced similar results. In the end he determined that whether or not he seals or heats his bottles, animal molecules still grow inside the bottles. Therefore he stopped using these measures that could have protected his next experiments from contamination from the air.
As a byproduct of that shaky conclusion, Nidham also decided that boiling water cannot kill microorganisms, or sterilize surgical instruments. The same conclusion spoils the projection on medicine in the next hundred years. Doctors and surgeons refused to wash their hands or their surgical instruments. Many doctors would operate on patients with their bare hands, and a few minutes later move on to operate on the next patient. Under these conditions, it is no wonder that most patients died from post-operative infections, and not from the disease or the injury itself. It is said about an English doctor in the 19th century, that out of a thousand surgeries he performed, only three of the patients survived. All these phenomena originate, among other things, from Nidham and the theory he developed on chicken legs.
When Nidham developed his theory, he was not yet known in the scientific community. Without Buffon, his experiments would probably have faded into obscurity, like Joblot's experiments, which were not translated into other languages at the time. Fortunately for Needham, Buffon was his partner in some of those experiments, and was happy to see that their results confirmed his theory - even if under Needham's unique interpretation.
The theory formulated by the two together - about organic molecules, the plant power that drives them and the patterns in which they combine - was published in the first volumes of Buffon's 'History of Nature', printed in 1750. Those volumes sold like hot cakes in France and were translated into many languages.
Science comes to the people
Before long, every market boy and every European nobleman knew that the animolecules could form themselves from dead matter. Buffon's colorful and detailed descriptions captured the imagination of all Europeans. With a flick of the pen, he allowed them to dive into the depths of the drop under the microscope lens, and swim side by side with the strange, alien molecules. The ink was Buffon's sword, and his fluid and passionate writing style was the way he carried it. Indeed, to this day it is hard not to be moved when we read Buffon's poetic description of the small animolecules and the way they are created.
"Even after death, a pinch of life is preserved in the material from which living beings are composed. Life is, ultimately, in the molecules of the body. These molecules are arranged as if in a pattern, and there are many different patterns, like the number of different creatures. As soon as death interrupts the game of organization - that is, cancels the unifying power of the pattern - the body begins to disintegrate. But its organic molecules all survive, and when they find themselves free among the decaying remains of the body, they pass into new bodies as soon as they are caught by the power of some other pattern... But in the time between the transition, when the pattern's power is still inactive, a vast number of formations Spontaneity may occur. In the space of time when the organic molecules can circulate freely in the material of the dead and decaying bodies... those organic molecules, always active, re-enslave the decaying material, bring larger particles closer to themselves, unite them and create a huge crowd of small and organized bodies. Some of those bodies, like the diarrhea and the mushrooms, resemble larger animals or plants. Other bodies, which are almost infinite in number, are visible only under the lens of the microscope. All those bodies come into being only by spontaneous formation, and they fill the space that nature left between the simple organic molecules on the one hand, and the animals and plants on the other. This sequence, this chain that describes the transformation of the animal organized at the highest level down to the simplest organic molecule, allows for all the subtleties that can be imagined, from every possible direction we look at them…” [D]
On the basis of the enormous popularization and pan-European admiration for Buffon, Nidham was also carried to the heights of his career. He was elected a member of the Royal Society of London and continued to conduct various experiments. Each of these experiments, according to Needham's selective interpretation, supported and even reaffirmed his theory.
Although the general public was convinced of the correctness of the spontaneous formation of microorganisms, many scientists were still skeptical about the spontaneous formation. Needham's experiments were repeated, but different results were obtained for different experimenters. Only after fifteen years did a person arrive who succeeded in refuting Needham's experiments. This man was Lazzaro Spallanzani, of whom Voltaire said that he was "the best observer and examiner in Europe." [E]
Lazzaro Spallanzani: the man who knew how to look through a microscope
Spallanzani was born in 1729 in the small village of Spallanzano, after which he was named. His father was a well-known lawyer, and like Buffon's father, he also pushed Spallanzani to study law. Spallanzani did not lie, and followed Buffon's path. Much to his father's shame, he was a lazy student, and spent most of his time watching small animals and trying to learn their customs. Despite Lazaro's low grades, his father took advantage of the connections he had with the bishop of the province, and managed to send his son Bish-Gada to study law at the University of Bologna.
At the University of Bologna Spallanzani met for the first time a man he could appreciate. It was his cousin, Laura Bassi, who at the age of 21 was accepted as a professor of physics at the University of Bologna, knew how to speak four languages fluently and throughout her extensive scientific career also managed to give birth and raise eight children. All this at a time when the stated role of women was to be housewives. Bassi still serves as a symbol of women in science, and as a patron who guards the University of Bologna.
Bassi recognized the potential in the young Spelanzani and introduced him to the natural sciences. Under her wing, Spallanzani began to be drawn to the study of physics, chemistry and biology, and became acquainted with many researchers and scholars. Despite the great promise he showed, his father refused to allow him to leave law school. Although years later all of Europe would know Spallanzani's hot temper, he was still a devoted son and respected his father's will. He continued to study to become a lawyer, but did not stop his attempts to convince his father to let him switch to the natural sciences. In the end, the despairing father declared that "If you find even one respectable person who can tell me that it is better for you to study natural sciences and not law, I will let you!"
The next day, the father's friend, Antonio Volisnieri, with whom Spallanzani was also friends, showed up at the Spallanzani family home and told the father of the house that it would be better for him to let the young Spallanzani learn as much as he could. The father gave in, and Spallanzani passed the first obstacle on his way to becoming one of the most talented researchers and experimenters in Europe.
At the age of 28, Spallanzani accepted a position as professor of physics and mathematics at the University of Reggio Emilia. He stayed there for ten years, then moved to the University of Modena as a professor of physics. During these years he also passed his priestly exams and became a certified priest. In those years, the title of 'priest' was similar to a degree in law or natural sciences, and it seems that Spallanzani obtained the title only to specialize in another profession. He made a living from his university studies, and devoted the rest of his time to research.
At this time Spallanzani became familiar with the volumes in 'History of Nature' which described Buffon's theory and Needham's experiments. Unlike many scientists of his time, he decided to conduct experiments on the subject himself before establishing a position. As a result of these experiments, his first scientific essay was published in 1765 under the name 'Essay on microscopic observations concerning the formation system of Messrs. Needham and Buffon'.
A blow to Needham
Spallanzani recognized that the main problem in Needham's experiments was the way they were conducted, and tried to examine every possible point in the experiments himself. A significant part of his genius lay in his ability to break down a complex problem into several simpler problems. The experiments he conducted to disprove Needham's claims were very simple, but each of them contributed their part in providing the final answer.
As I remember, Needham placed the bottles with the solution on top of a hot stove for several minutes. Spallanzani believed that in this way, only the bottom of the bottle was exposed to most of the heat, and the neck of the bottle hardly warmed up. To ensure that the entire bottle was exposed to the same temperature, Spallanzani used a cauldron filled with boiling water, in which he immersed the bottle with the hay water. In this way he could know that the microorganisms on the neck of the bottle are also exposed to the same heat as the microorganisms at the bottom of the bottle.
Spallanzani also realized that when he steam sealed the bottles with corks, molecules from the air could enter the bottle while it was being sealed. Therefore he avoided sealing his bottles with corks. Instead he hit the neck of the bottle until the glass softened. So Spallanzani used tweezers to bring the two sides of the neck closer together and solder the narrow neck to a complete seal. In this way Spallanzani was able to seal his bottles without human contact, which could contaminate them.
When Spallanzani used these methods to boil the bottles, he showed that the solutions inside the bottles remained completely clean, and no growth of animal molecules could be observed in the contents.
To better understand the source of Needham's error, Spallanzani conducted another experiment. He suspected that some animal molecules were more sensitive to heating than others. To verify the suspicion he heated a series of bottles for increasing periods of time. When he looked at the solutions inside the bottles after the experiment, Spallanzani noticed that in each bottle there were different varieties of animolecules, which are the descendants of those animolecules that were able to survive the heating. Only in bottles that were heated for more than an hour did Spallanzani not find a single animal molecule.
After Spallanzani published the essay, he moved on to research in other directions, and in the following years published important articles in various fields. In 1768 he published a number of studies on the action of the heart as a pump that circulates blood through the veins and arteries, accompanied by important observations on blood vessels in various organisms. In those studies, he also discovered for the first time the capillaries - the smallest blood vessels through which oxygen permeates the entire body. In the following years, he studied the regenerative capacity of many animals, including snails and amphibians, and reached important conclusions, thanks to which he is now considered one of the founding fathers of the science of comparative biology. Thanks to his physical fitness and indefatigable curiosity, Spallanzani was also able to organize and lead mountain climbing expeditions, and used the knowledge he acquired in the mountains to compose a paper on the origins of springs.
While Spallanzani was engaged in those studies, his treatise was translated into English by none other than Needham himself. Needham took the opportunity to translate the relatively short essay into English, adding detailed notes and new descriptions of his own experiments. The final book published in English included Spallanzani's original 200 pages, plus nearly 300 more pages describing Needham's theory and his opposition to Spallanzani's conclusions and arguments. If we sum up all those grievances and torments in one sentence, Schnidham claimed that Spallanzani destroyed the 'plant power' present in the organic molecules in the air and water. The prolonged and careful heating that Spallanzani did to his bottles caused the plant power to wither and shrink, until he could not cause the organic molecules to connect with each other and form animal molecules.
When Needham's answer came to Spallanzani, the warm-tempered Italian fish in a simple way because the herbal power still exists in the bottled water. In front of the shocked eyes of his students, he broke the necks of the bottles and let the room air enter them. A few days later, the water was already full of small and energetic animal molecules. Spallanzani's conclusion was that the antimolecules exist in the air, and through it they are able to reach into any vessel that is not properly sealed. He considered the matter of spontaneous formation as closed and returned to engage in other topics in his research.
Needham himself refused to part with his theory. He claimed that when Spallanzani hit the bottles, he caused the air inside them to become diluted. Without the air, the microorganisms could not form within the solution. To avoid diluting the air, Needham suggested conducting the experiment with the bottles open to room air. Spallanzani strongly objected and explained to Needham that opening the bottles would expose the solution to room air, through which the antimolecules would penetrate into the solution. Needham did not relent, and the two exchanged many letters, the content of which grew more heated over the years. The two were never able to agree, and in 1780 Spallanzani threw up his hands and stopped exchanging letters with "the English naturalist, whose 'vegetable power' he speaks of is nothing more than wild wishful thinking." [F]
End of the 18th century
How does the story end for our three heroes?
Although Needham's theories were never proven, he still enjoyed the 'glory of his youth', when the whole world was aware of him and his experiments. On the back of that fame, Needham was accepted as director of the Imperial Academy in Brussels, and held it until his death in 1781, when he was 68. Two years before his death, he sent a letter to his friend, the naturalist Charles Bonnet. In this letter, which is like a confession, Nidham described his scientific career and tried to explain what he was trying to achieve. When we read parts of the letter, it is easier to understand the source of Needham's wild theories and his unwillingness to back down from them.
"Would you like me to tell you a secret about myself that I haven't told another person yet? Already in my youth I learned that only the science of morals is the truly useful of all the sciences. When I arrived in Paris for the first time in 1746, I observed that the new philosophy of this country was too similar to the frivolous nature of the nation…” Needham felt that the refutation of spontaneous formation would lead to the loss of religion, and therefore also the loss of morals of France as a whole. He found himself obliged to propose a theory which could set things right. "It was the only way to find a solid substitute for a system ... wickedly carried on by false philosophers." Needham concludes that, "Now, my dear friend, you see my full purpose and the unity of my plan in all my actions." [G]
Buffon continued to write his 'History of Nature', although his health began to deteriorate as a result of repeated attacks of kidney stones. He managed to maintain an active lifestyle and continued to work on his life's work until his last day. Buffon managed to publish 36 volumes of the 'History of Nature' before his death in 1788, at the age of 81. In the post-mortem analysis, more than 70 kidney stones were discovered in his kidneys, each of which alone would have been enough to disable a person less determined than Count de Buffon.
After his death, eight more volumes of the encyclopedia were published, focusing on fish, marine mammals and reptiles. The encyclopedia is now considered one of the most read books during the French Enlightenment.
Buffon had only one son from his wife to continue his journey. He tried to push his son to study the natural sciences, but discovered to his dismay that there is a big difference between a quick mind and a willingness to work hard. The son preferred to spend his time and money on good wine and bad women, and vice versa. After his father's death, he spent the family's fortune on his numerous and indecent private needs. His wild lifestyle led him to a bad culture, and six years after his father's death, the young Buffon went to the guillotine. In those moments before death, Buffon paid his family his last respects and declared,
"Be aware, citizens, that Buffon is standing before you!"
As for Spallanzani himself, his eloquent and clear lectures and important studies made him a well-known figure in Italy and Europe. He turned down several job offers at prestigious universities, as he wanted to live close to his family, but in 1770 he received an official request from the Hungarian empress Maria Theresa to transfer to the University of Pavia. He could not refuse this request, and for the next thirty years in Pavia he conducted his most important experiments. He studied the blood flow in the lungs, conducted 264 studies on the digestive system and discovered the contribution of the male sperm to the reproductive process. His curiosity led him to distant lands, and he traveled all over the continent of Europe and the Mediterranean region. Even at the age of 60, one can find in his writings reports about climbing to the summits of active volcanoes, and how he conducted controlled explosions in them to reveal their secrets.
His passion never left him, and towards the end of his life he began to investigate the hearing organs in bats and the ability of the electric eel to create a charge in water. In the last series of experiments he conducted, published after his death, he showed that oxygen turns into carbon dioxide in the tissues of the body, and not in the lungs. He died in Pavia, in 1799, apparently from prostate cancer, and he is 70 years old.
After Spallanzani's death, the scientific world remained divided on the spontaneous formation. Although Needham's experiments were aborted, Spallanzani was unable to prove unequivocally that he had not 'corrupted' the air inside his bottles. Nevertheless, he managed to put a wedge in the wheels of Needham and Buffon, and stop the spread of their theory.
The spontaneous formation remains a subject of debate and controversy. Only towards the end of the 19th century, the great Louis Pasteur managed to disprove the same dogma that stood in its place for more than two thousand years, and we will talk about this in one of the following articles in the series.
The end of the 18th century: the first success in the fight against diseases
The struggle to eradicate the dogma of spontaneous formation was one of the most important struggles in science in the 18th century. Buffon's ambition and Needham's willful negligence paved the way for the 19th century in which humanity is still unable to fight effectively against bacteria and viruses, or even see the need for that fight. Nevertheless, towards the end of the century, the signal was given to begin the fight against the deadliest disease known to mankind up to that time. Edward Jenner started this fight in 1796, when he tried the world's first vaccine for smallpox - a disease that killed hundreds of millions of people around the world. Edward Jenner was not aware of the connection between the animal molecules and the diseases, but the vaccine he developed was the opening shot in the race between the creators of the small diseases, and the medical science that finally says to eradicate them from the world.
The next article in the series will deal with smallpox, which is the deadliest disease known to man, and the only one that is completely eradicated from the earth.
A : Zocchi, F. (1988) Accuracy of Buffon's 200-year-old experimental data. Nature, 336:318.
B: “Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de,” Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Biographies Plus Illustrated (HW Wilson Company, 2001) [1] [Accessed December 26, 2005].
C: Needham, “Some late observations,” pp. 636, 635, 636-637.
D : Buffon, Histoire naturelle de l'homme, Vol. IV (1777), Appendix, p. 339.
E : Lazzaro Spallanzani: At the Roots of Modern Biology
ERNESTO CAPANNA*
F: Lazzaro Spallanzani: a blow against spontaneous generation
ANNALISA ARIATTI, PAOLO MANDRIOLI
G : Needham to Bonnet, 28 Oct. (Sept.) 1779, MS Bonnet, 35:100r- 102r.
