The economic situation in the Land of Israel from the second century AD onwards - Chapter Five - Ceramics as a sign of capital and government

Various factors and many points came together in the period after the destruction of the Second Temple to give us a broad, comprehensive and interesting picture regarding the ceramics industry

See previous episodes in the series:

• First chapter - Villas in the literature of the Sages
• Chapter Two - Agriculture: Capital and Government
• Chapter three - intensive farm: a real agricultural revolution
• Chapter four - literal royal cradling
• Chapter six - the glass and the presidency

Art and artists

For those who didn't notice, the thread connecting all the chapters was "Capital and Government" and the same thread continues in this chapter as well as in the following chapters. I do not intend to create a historiosophical, somewhat artificial and fake interpolation, regarding this matter in a modern, contemporary version, but when I examine in depth, lengthwise and horizontally, the sources that deal with, or it is more correct to say, through which we can glimpse what was in the ancient times in the Land of Israel, that is, the external literature and the literature of the Chaz." To (Mishna, Tosefta, Talmuds and Midrashim) we turn to two phenomena for which there is no parallel in the ancient era, and that both are tightly interwoven with each other, i.e. the involvement of the Presidency in various issues, including in the economic field through the activity of the Sanhedrin and this way of seizing stronger control over the flock from its pasture. References in the field of the economy through decrees and regulations of Greek, Hellenistic and Roman administrations is known to us through many studies conducted throughout history, but such individual and branched intervention such as laws and rulings and especially discussions that took place in the Sanhedrin and even outside of it, has no equal in other ancient cultures.

In the period preceding the destruction of the Second Temple, when the Jewish public was led by the House of the Presidency and the High Priesthood, and these were subordinated to Hellenistic and Roman rule, we do not have such detailed information, as after the destruction of the Second Temple, about the involvement of the Jewish leadership in the affairs of the local economy, except perhaps in matters such as special such as the laws of pilgrimage. It may be difficult to bring in the writings of Josephus as a helpful argument in this regard, since his worldview was historiographical and historiosophical, and his works were written in this spirit, perhaps just like Greek, Hellenistic, and especially Roman historians of his time and the generations before him. True, we know of famous Roman authors such as Pliny, Vitruvius, Varro, Columella and many others who researched and published works in economic fields, but there was almost no direct and intentional connection between them and the government.

This is not the case in the literature of the ancient Jewish law, which was and was used, everything is important in navigating various topics, including the economic fields. In this way, the Sanhedrin was able to dominate its views and worldview among the Jewish public, especially after the destruction of the Second Temple and onward, when the status of the priesthood almost dissolved and disappeared, and the ruling presidency remained at the top.

Another element can be added to this phenomenon, which is the diverse relationship that the Jewish presidency, especially during the days of Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi, had with the Roman authorities, while indirectly of course the presidency fulfilled the will of the government in various areas.

The result was a covert cultivation of the crooked and somewhat inclusive concept of "capital and rule" which was based on double and mutual feeding all the time.

It should be noted with all language of emphasis that in all the following ceramic sources there was one or another touch on the presidential involvement. That is, for the penetration of clear economic aspects.

The Talmudical and Talmudic sources of the period in question clearly distinguish between "artisan" and "layman" as a language, and from this we can learn about specializations in the manufacturing industries, along with the mass distribution of various products, and this is how the Jerusalem Talmud teaches us: "A craftsman is obliged by his craft" (Yerushalmi Shabbat chapter 4 p. XNUMX) - "obliged" by the quality of the product, its price, the legal responsibility and more, and perhaps there is an allusion hidden here regarding the professional associations. Evidence has also been known that clearly demonstrates the consolidation of the industry and the craft and a transition, somewhat revolutionary, in relation to the craft in the period in question, such as one of the brothers who took two hundred zoz (a considerable sum by all accounts) to "learn art" (Tosefta Baba Batra XNUMX:XNUMX). And perhaps this teaches, as is customary in Hellenistic and Roman society, to hold study workshops in certain factories, and that the following story involves this, and refers to the institutionalization of art, when one mother took her son to study art.

After the devastation of Ben Kusaba's rebellion (135 AD onwards), the members of the Sanhedrin in Usha HaGalilit, where the Sanhedrin traveled after the rebellion, reasoned that a man must teach his son an art, not only as an economic basis, but also as a unique social, moral and psychological value. A social value, and in their words - a person must "provide the settlement" (Talmud Babli Kiddoshin XNUMX p. XNUMX). That is, to participate in the building of the society, and those who do not engage in the craft "are not from the settlement" and contribute to its failure. The moral-human value - "he who turns himself to idleness, corrupts his soul" and even the religious one - work as an instrument for man's spiritual elevation and a means of attachment to God, as well as the ideological one - work has its own right "because of its affection" given to man, and man, when he works, is carries out his human destiny that determines his uniqueness in the world.

The ceramic craft

Various factors and many points came together in the period after the destruction of the Second Temple to give us a broad, comprehensive and interesting picture as far as the ceramics industry is concerned. Not that they were not involved in this field in the days of the Second Temple that preceded its destruction, but that from this period onwards the face of this craft changed not a little as follows:

א - The Galilee, which was almost unscathed by the Ben Kusva rebellion, became the important economic support of the company. It was inhabited by many Jews, and reached the peak of its development in the third century AD, and as proof of this the wide chain of synagogues that were discovered in the Galilee during this period, and at that time all the functional resources that lay in its lands were utilized.

ב - The pottery itself went through a process of development and refinement, like the pottery candles, and the sources are loaded with enormous knowledge regarding the production of the vessels and how they were prepared, and this is confirmed by the archaeological sources that were uncovered in Israel.

ג - Simultaneously with the development of sophisticated and organized manufacturing industries and crafts in the period in question such as oil, wine, perfumes, weaving, fishing and more, ceramics was harnessed to the economic-economic effort, as a side industry and the refinement of storage tools, preservation and many other aids for the aforementioned crafts.

ד - The extent of the distribution of pottery in Israel and in the Diaspora was unprecedented, and to such an extent that they stopped importing pottery from the countries of the sea, such as the islands of the Aegean Sea, Greece, Gallia and Rome. Also, the considerable spread of farm houses (villas) that produced oil and wine caused an increase in local ceramic consumption.

ה - The production of pottery became an art on the one hand and an art on the other, and entire villages were known that specialized in this industry and in intensive activity.

ו - There was an increase in the demand for ceramic products both from the wealthy Jewish presidential house, such as the house of Rabbi Yehuda Hanasi, both from the increased consumption of Jewish families in Amidof and from the presence of another Roman legion after the revolt of Ben Kusava, the sixth legion, the "Barzli", including the tenth legion that sat nearby to Jerusalem (in the colony-origin) and from the increased presence of the Roman administration and the multitude of baths.

ז - The production of ceramics required the generation of high heat and for this the workers needed a large amount of wood. Therefore, the locals developed varieties of idle trees for industrial purposes.

ח - Professional associations are established and developing in various fields of production, including ceramics.

production centers

The Tosefta testifies that "large stones will be divided into two parts. The Galilean and Obinots in Judea have creaks and no sides" (Tosefta baba kama 2 XNUMX). The product of Yehuda was published even before the destruction of the house. However, after the rebellion of Ben Kusva, evidence emerges in our sources regarding the excellence of Galilean ceramics, hence the "Galilean revolution". This testimony tells about the fine Galilean production (thin pottery) in terms of a very high and constant standard, as well as the extent of distribution, the improved technique in the ceramic work and its quick production, hence the popular and cheap.

In the period in question, after the destruction of the Second Temple and especially after the rebellion of Ben Kusava, two new and important production centers in the Galilee stand out and they are Kfar Hanania and Shehin, as we have said in the sources: "There is no Puskin on the eggs (that is, the somewhat rolled raw material) of a creator, but until they are made. Rabbi Yossi said: What are the words supposed to be? (And he answers:) In those who smoke with white dirt (a certain raw material), but in those who smoke with black dirt, such as Kfar Hanania and her friends, Kfar Shihin and her friends, it is permissible to make a spike (to rule), that although it does not (for the creator, the time of its production, its quality and price) it has (To the Galilean product)" (Tosefta Baba Metzia 3:XNUMX).

First - the very mention of the box "Kfar Hanania and its associates" shows an industry on a large scale, organized and institutionalized; Second - due to its quality, size and scope of distribution, it had a great influence on the prices of produce. Rabbi Yossi testified to the degree of quality when he said that "there is no way for them (of the vessels) to be broken" and with it the saying - "You put straw into the fields (as the biblical expression for abundance of fruit), (this is how you put) pots in Kfar Hananiah" (Tosefta Baba Metzia 3 XNUMX), Sdia to illustrate the fruits of the industrial center. And the upgraded technique in the ceramic production process is evidenced by the fact that according to the pottery of Kfar Hanania and/or Shichin, the classes were measured in volume and weight. At this point we can include the ceramic industry of Shehin together with the metal production center in the same place.

Another production center is in Beit Shean, which according to the archaeological findings at the place we can learn about a high technique in production. We will also understand this from the local consumption of the Roman and foreign presence in general in this city. It should be noted that Beit Shean was also famous as a center for the production of textiles.

Additional ceramic production centers, and usually as accompaniments to various and diverse economic productions, such as oil (jugs and jugs), wine (and for example a tool for pouring wine from the vat into a barrel called a "presser". This tool was used interestingly to optimize the filtering of the wine), weaving, dyeing and more, and vice versa , were found in Tiberias, Osha, Arbel, Tzipori, Beit Netufa and Beit Ramata.

The artisans and the products of their art

The maker of the pottery was called a potter and over time they knew to distinguish between a "craftsman potter" and a "layman potter". The attitude towards the potters in general is changing for the better as proof of the development of production, the specializations of the professionals and their professional organization. The potters were united in guilds and the phrase "the disciple of a pottery maker" became known as proof of the institutionalization of production and its organization.

It is appropriate to point out the terra sigillata phenomenon. This is a certain type of pottery that developed in the west of the Roman Empire (in Gallia and the Rhine region until the middle of the second century CE, when in the light of archeology finds in Israel we witness the phenomenon of Terra Sigillata remains in Israel such as in Beit Sha'arim or Tel Xilla. Alongside this type another type developed called "vessel The red pottery", created in North Africa and its remains were found in Israel in the second century CE.

The ceramics industry in Israel similarly pushed both the terra sigillata and the red ceramics.

In order to create fine pottery, the artisans needed special ovens that would produce extremely high temperatures. In our sources, such an oven is called "furna", as if it is derived from the Latin - furnus, which may indicate a Roman influence in this regard.

The great richness of the names of the pottery, their parts and their actual use as found in the Sage literature may well testify to the scope of the product, the sophistication of its manufacture, the nature of its professional level, and more. This is a great wealth of shapes and shapes that surpass even that of classical pottery, and being also a side industry to other crafts, it adapted itself to a special use, to a special and diverse and precise structure of course of every type of vessel and vessel such as for the production of oil and wine and their preservation.

Here we will present different types of pottery as follows:

א - Ilfas, when everywhere they made it in a standard and different pattern, like in the village of Hanania or in Kesarin. "Urban Elpsin" or "clogged Elpsin" were remembered and known. The technique used in the manufacture of the vessel, that is, with the help of a pattern (stencil), the ellipse and its cover were created at once, and this is how Rashbi Aligorit informs us: "Both (heaven and earth) were not created (as one), but as an ellipse and its cover" (Beresheet Rabbah 21:XNUMX), to teach us about The frequency of production and the distribution of the vessels, in terms of similitude and similitude, as well as the precision of the pottery craft.

ב - a barrel. A vessel that earned its name due to its plump shape, and it is divided into three types: "Habinyon" (the smallest), "Lodi" - medium in size and named after their origin, and "Lehamiot", the largest which originates from Bethlehem in the Galilee.

The barrel was used as a measure, a fact that indicates the different types of vessels, their distribution and the technical precision in their preparation.

The barrel was created in a mold and since it was used as a means of storage, for oil and/or wine) the creators were obliged to tar/seal the vessel, or as it is called in the sources "blocking". An interesting passage from the time of Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi, namely the end of the second century AD and the beginning of the third, indicates that "... an incident in one ship belonging to the house of Rabbi (Yehuda the Hanasi), which contained more than three hundred barrels" (Yerushalmi Avoda Zerah chapter XNUMX mb p. XNUMX ) to teach us about the distribution of the vessels (and perhaps also their contents) beyond the borders of Judea and the Galilee.

ג - jug. In the period in question, a distinction is made between the creator of a "craftsman" and a "layman". A number of artisans associated with the making of the jugs are mentioned, which proves the industrial nature of the creation and the specialization in it.

ד – a jug. A distinction is made between "clear" and "beautiful", when in any case we are talking about worthy and high-quality. Chazal sources tell about the clogging of the jugs on a large scale, such as a hundred jugs in one shipment. The jug was used as a container for liquids, "... and the wine is preserved for many days and years, except in earthenware jugs" (Psikta Zota "Bashalach", Nez 2) which were sealed/sealed, and after the liquid was poured into them, "it was poured into the body" (Mesher Shanich 12:XNUMX), as is also indicated in the Roman writings. An interesting testimony about the quality of the ceramic products is heard from the mouth of Rabbi Yehuda who tells, albeit in the language of sailing, about jugs that do not break even when they are hit.

ה - Pech. Small and large pitchers were known. became formed in a mold and attached in a furnace. It was used, among other things, to store body oils for massage in the baths.

ו – a bowl. Her work is distinguished between "artisan" and "layman" and she was created in print.

ז – The clay candles. In the second century CE, the clay candles were created like the Roman candles in patterns/molds, and since then various decorations began to appear on them. Pottery candles whose shape was similar to the Roman one were discovered in Beit Shan, Nazareth, Hukok, Beit Natif and Beit Govrin whose candles were called "Candles of the South". Until about the middle of the second century CE, the candles were produced in a uniform pattern, and from then on, since developed and sophisticated production centers were established, diverse variants of candles became known. This phenomenon was manifested as a result of external influences such as Metdamor (Palmyra) and Dora Europas due to the trade relations between them and the Land of Israel. Those variations are a prominent sign for a consumer audience, something "demanding" such as the Roman army units, the Roman administration and the Jewish and Hellenistic population.

ח – Primary and secondary coffins. Their industry developed mainly towards the end of the second century AD with the flourishing of Beit Shaarim as a burial center for the Jews of Israel and the Diaspora.

The following ceramic tools are more related to the public sphere and it is known that at least some of them were produced and repaired by Jewish craftsmen:

A. Imprints - mainly for the needs of the legions and auxiliary soldiers stationed in the country. For example, in the Roman bathhouse in Ramat Rachel in the third century CE, we found the imprint of the seal of the XNUMXth "Parthensi" legion, and this is how we can understand the evidence in the Sages' literature that discuss imprints of this kind in relation to the laws of pagan worship and in relation to Jewish pottery, when the creators marked the mark/symbol Their products to prevent imitation and counterfeiting. In this context, we will also mention the "faces" or "faces", which decorated public buildings on one side and private properties on the other.

B. Tiles - mainly as a result of the wide scope of construction in the area and the high demand of the Roman legions and officials in the country. For example, in Nahariya, a Jewish burial system was uncovered with Roman-type roof tiles, which proves that they originated from a local Jewish workshop. The testimonies of the Sages clearly tell about the production of the tiles, and there are those who believe (Beresheet Rabba XNUMX, end of chapter XNUMX) that the "jet" was the half cylinder that was used to cover the tiles and perhaps the words "ceramide" or "cormedin" were taken from the Roman "coramicus", meaning a ceramic product.

third. Bricks - the Romans were also a significant consumer of this product, and the archaeological evidence confirms this. The brick industry developed simultaneously with the phenomenon of urbanization and the construction of the many public and private buildings in the period in question. In general, the appearance of the expression "the seal of the faces" in the literature of the Sages involves the work of stone. It is a somewhat pagan configuration in the form of a human head or a god fixed on the front of the building and it has sacral and even magical aspects.

D. Jets - these are clay pipes, the development of their production was also involved in the development of urbanization in the cities.

ה. "The Hadrian pottery" as the sub-article, which is considered according to it to be a vessel among the prohibited Gentile vessels, and their prohibition is "the prohibition of pleasure". The Babylonian Talmud interprets this vessel in terms of "pottery of Hadrian the emperor" as a vessel for holding wine, which may have involved a different production technique that flourished in the days of the emperor Hadrian, and perhaps in light of the presence of an ancient jug in Jaffa dating to the second century AD, we would correspond to the days of Hadrian, bearing an inscription in Latin that alludes to The location of the production in the "Hadriana Colony", there is a clue to the location of the production and not to the emperor in question.