The economic situation in the Land of Israel from the 2nd century onwards - the glass and the presidency

Chapter six in the series: Glass was considered a rare and very expensive commodity, and for obvious economic reasons and considerations, the Roman Empire saw it as its duty to encourage its production in coastal areas, such as Tyre-Sidon and Egypt, and between Labin and even in the Land of Israel, where the raw material existed, i.e. sand.

See previous episodes in the series:

• First chapter - Villas in the literature of the Sages
• Chapter Two - Agriculture: Capital and Government
• Chapter three - intensive farm: a real agricultural revolution
• Chapter four - literal royal cradling
• Chapter Five - Ceramics as a sign of capital and rule

where is the glass?

I will begin with a puzzlement, which has no convincing explanation - how, although the issue of glass production is very ancient and continues throughout history in various developments, never, until the more modern era, did anyone think of turning glass production into window glazing. The glazing of various tools, household and ornamental, reached incredible performance levels in the ancient era, however, no conceptual opening was created for window glazing. Amazing. However, there may be an allusion that there were "bricks of windows that have espaklaria" (Tosefta Eruvin 17 XNUMX and Talmud Yerushalmi Shabbat Chapter XNUMX, XNUMX p. XNUMX). However, as we will see later, the meaning of the "Aspeklaria" is not clear enough.

There is a claim that glass vessels with great transparency were indeed created here and there, and in the language of the Sages they were called "white glass", and a white glass vessel was very expensive and was estimated at an astronomical amount of 400 zoz according to the Sages, and if we compare what is said in the Haggadah "Dezbin Abba Batri" three) Zozi, Had Gadiya (one Capricorn) Had Gadiya", after all, the value of a transparent glass was about one hundred and thirty-three Capricorns.

And below are some important infrastructure points for the production of glassware in ancient Israel:

• The glass was considered a rare and very expensive commodity. And for clear economic reasons and considerations, the Roman Empire saw it as its duty to encourage its production in coastal areas, such as Tyre-Sidon and Egypt, and between Labin and even in the Land of Israel, where the raw material exists, i.e. sand. The empire also aspired to oversee the production and marketing of this rare commodity. The glass industry developed in Lugundum in the first century AD and pushed the glassware of Kapua (south of the boot), until the latter had to stop its markets. The Rhine region, which played a natural role as one of the dominant transportation arteries of Europe at the time and reached its peak in the second half of the second century AD, cast an economic fear on Rome, which sought to confront its economic power with a competing economic center and thereby take its sting. the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, and all this at the same time as an intensive development of ceramics production.
• The production of the glass was related to those centers where the appropriate raw material was found and its production involved large financial expenses. These two facts focused on the territories of the imperial lands such as Beit Shaarim, or in areas where a clear Roman influence prevailed such as Tiberias and the Acre Valley area.
• A close connection was found between the Jewish presidency and this profitable industry, which links to the previous chapters where the relationship between capital and government was discussed.
• The artisans of glass production were organized in the framework of a professional association, which was fundamentally family, as the production process almost certainly required a family business.
• The product improved and perfected when a new production technique appeared and it was the swelling in the pattern, which teaches about the relationship between the production of glassware and ceramics. This is also evidenced by the fact that Sage sources distinguish between a craftsman who creates glassware and a layman.
•   The increase of the Jewish settlement in the Galilee, mainly after the revolt of Ben Khosba (135 CE) and partly in the West, that is, in the Gulf of Acre.

The glass industry did not fall in importance from the ceramic industry, and we learn about this from the sources: "Glass vessels, mai tama (what is the importance of that)?" They cut (judged) in them impurity (from themselves), since the beginning of their creation (produced) from the sand, which (compared) them to earthen vessels" (Talmud Babli Shabbat XNUMX p. XNUMX) and in any case can be purified through baptism.

Tomaa receive useful tools from raw materials as well as broken and recycled glassware and ceramics. In any case, there is a kind of allusion to the degree of their transparency, that is, to the quality of the produce.

Glass production centers

Gates House

This area was an integral part of the imperial lands, and it is no wonder, in the economic context discussed, that the Romans would develop its economic infrastructure. The Romans, out of clear considerations as we saw in the previous chapters, both political, economic and personal, leased many areas of land in the area to Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi (capital and government). And it would therefore not be surprising to be reported on the appearance of the glassware industry in the area, one that was obviously involved in Roman influence and supervision over it.

In light of the archaeological evidence and findings, there was a serious glassware industry at the site with a wide scope and productive quality (M. Meisler, Yediot 17 p. 14-1050), such as the presence of a special furnace that produced a heat level of 110 degrees as well as the presence of a huge glass table whose dimensions were: 340 cm wide, 50 cm high, 8.8 cm thick and weighs 5 tons, and it was melted for about 10 to XNUMX days. This heavy slab would be broken into small units that were sent to local workshops in the area, which could be melted at a lower temperature. It must be admitted that this find dates to the fourth century AD, teaching us about continued production even in later periods.

And perhaps in the next testimony we can find a provision that helps the very mention of the breaking of the above-mentioned tablet, and this is how it was said in the ancient source: "The animal was loaded with dips and lamps, untied the ropes and the skin fell down, and even though it is clear that they were (there) in the cart (see below)..." (Talmud Babylonian Shabbat Canada p. b).

There is reason to believe that the artisans of Beit Sha'arim received the sand for making the glass from the nearby valley of Acre (Yonathan's translation of Deuteronomy XNUMX:XNUMX-XNUMX) and therefore the fact that we presented above about the territories owned by the Presidency in the valley of Acre is significant. This sand is considered the finest sand for this purpose and the artisans may even have used local chalk to make the glassware.

It is difficult to ignore again and again the fact of the close connection between the presidency and the economic enterprises and the ties with the Romans, in terms of capital and government.

I do not come to glorify and present an ethical argument in an era that was very far, TK Persa on TK Persa, from democracy, because the ancient Greek (quasi-democratic) government also took this line as well as the Roman Senate. However, let's not forget the very impact it had on the Jewish public during the period in question through the Sanhedrin's instructions, much more diverse and detailed than the Senate's decisions, for example. And for you, capital and power flowed in one submission.

Tiberias

Among the settlements of the Galilee, Tiberias gained a great and widespread reputation as another place for the production of glassware, and for this reason it was awarded the title of "Ilsis" in Sage literature, which means a house of glass industry (S. Lieberman, Tikoni Hiroshalmi, 4 XNUMX) and Midrash Tahlim Ag XNUMX ). A central figure associated with this production was Rabbi Haya Ruba (=the Great), who was, of course, close to the presidency of Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi. This Sanhedrin figure stood out for his extreme wealth, the fruit of business dealing in silk and linen, among other things. And it is said in the "Secret" that the production of the glass required a relatively large capital investment. And in some sage source it is stated that Rabbi Haya and Rabbi Shimon ben Chalfta gave a very expensive pearl to "Morno", that is, to the president of Rabbi Yehuda and so did the Persian king Artaban. And once again proof of the connection between capital and power and then, as we know, the "Gift Law" was not enacted. And in many testimonies in which the Tiberian "Ailsis" is mentioned, it is possible to connect the sages debating this with the presidency. And this is proof that the presidency was involved, as it turns out, in the production of the glass. And what connects all the other evidence regarding the "Ilsis" and the house of the presidency (Beresheet Rabbah XNUMX and Kohelat Rabbah XNUMX), and which in light of the imperial production development policy directed by the Roman Empire and the relationship between the presidency and it, then we will understand the multifaceted activity of Rabbi Yehuda the President .

The name or the term "Ilsis" or "Ilosis" is phonetically connected with the Talmudic term "Beit Holsaot" (Y. Brand, Sinai 196 p. Murder), such as: "Tano Rabnan - the one who sells the yard sold the outer houses... and the house of the Holsaot." Stores that are open to it are sold with it... And the religious (sixth year, instructed) Rabbi Haya (mentioned above): We do not sell with it" (Baba Batra 19 p. 18; Arakhin Lev p. XNUMX). We have before us an interesting evidence of a large and complex structure of a center for the production of glass, probably in Tiberias due to the mention of Rabbi Haya, and next to it - a commercial center for marketing the produce. Echoes and remains of this industry lie in the archaeological excavations at the site (file of the Mazia Memorial Society, p. XNUMX). However, it is possible that the raw materials were brought from other places such as Tire/Sidon or the Acre region (Yonathan's translation of Deuteronomy XNUMX:XNUMX-XNUMX).

The glass industry of Tiberias gained a reputation mainly for its cups and goblets, according to the words of the Sage: "Tania - (the vessel) the Sharonite is judged as Carmelite - alive and not mixed, new and not old. Rabbi Yitzchak bar Abudimi said - and all of them should not be tested except with a simple Tiberian glass. What's the point? (Why? What's the point of this?) Abaye said: All the pilgrims are holding a log (a measure for liquids - 345.6 milliliters/cmXNUMX). We make it two login from it, we make it from two hundred simple Tiberian cups, even holding two login we make it from it..." (Babili Nida XNUMX p. XNUMX). And the conclusions that arise from this section: firstly - it was a very fine product to such an extent that they tested the color and quality of wines and other liquids on it; Second - its size and its constant and accurate capacity prove its production to a uniform standard, and this indicates in general the excellent technique in its production and its wide distribution in terms of a fixed model; Thirdly - the distribution of the modular vessel reached as far as Babylon, as the Babylonian father testifies here, and as we know that Babylon used to be an important commercial station for goods that went to the Near and Far East, then the evidence of the above connection between the president Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi and the Persian king Artaban (the ruler of Babylon) ) takes on a special meaning here; Fourth - the glass industry was also used as a side industry for the production and preservation of wine, at least temporarily, and therefore its producers tried to refine and improve its quality in order to adapt to the storage conditions of the liquids.

Tiberias was also known for its "pailin" (Yerushalmi Nida chapter XNUMX, XNUMX, p. XNUMX), namely its bowls, which were so fine that it was noted about them, that "they do not cast a shadow on its walls." And this is an interesting allusion to the degree of transparency of the tool.

Due to the series of reasons stated so far and in accordance with the imperial policy of increasing production and encouraging the production forces on behalf of the Roman Empire, the production of the glass naturally required more self-discipline which led to the praise of the product. And to prove it, it will be said that artisan Jews were encouraged to emigrate to the rest of the Roman Empire in order to develop the craft of glass production there (cil 5, 8118; 14, 24, 10). It is known that the artistic glass created in Rome was produced by Jewish and Syrian artisans and from this Jewish glassblowers were known in Constantinople in Asia Minor (evargarius, historia ecclesiastica, 4) as well as in Tire (Yerushalmi Avoda Zerah 36), in Damascus (Yerushalmi Pesachim, 8) in Amsa. The appearance of the jugs, the saucers, the oil jug and the grape motif in the relief decoration of the glass in Syria was under the influence of Jewish artisans. And that the station of the Jews of Tiberias in Rome (vita simeonis Sali, 502), was involved in this kind of immigration. There in Rome evidence was found in the catacombs (burial pits) about Justus and Eliphis from Tiberias, who were related, so it seems, to the Tiberian "Ilopusa" involved in the Tiberian glass industry (Frey no. 5,1) and precisely in the Greek language - goldsmith who melts glass. Thus, in this context, artisan Jews were found in Sparta, Illyria, Africa (that is, the North African Karta Hadta and more (ig 19 Frey) and as we showed earlier, a fairly large center for the production of glass and glassware was created in the Acre Valley and the Haifa Bay (Yonathan's translation of Samer Devarim, 18 -6) with an indirect Roman influence and as a result of a relatively massive Jewish settlement in the area and this is confirmed by the archaeological sources that testify that the Nahariya area was also an important center for glass production (Archaeological News 5, La-Lev, 14-13) and even in the Jalma area, where it was discovered A workshop for the production of glass vessels with various auxiliary facilities (above, 5, 7-10). Near Jalma, as well as in the area of ​​Kfar Yasif where evidence of "glass sand" was found (Tacitus 46, 45). Below are other places where they were discovered Evidence for glass factories: Caesarea, El Mafjar, Susita, Nahariya, Rashpon and even Baghersh (including, Weinberg, Roman glass factories in the lower Galilee, Haaretz Museum, XNUMX, XNUMX-XNUMX).

The production of glass

The sources distinguish, just like in other products, between the craftsman and the layman, as proof of a great development in the production of the glass and the creation of the varied kidney and even of production on a wide scale. The above-mentioned distinction between craftsman and layman in the various Sanhedrin laws in such an early period before various standards institutes indicates a serious regard for the industry in question and for determining the degree of responsibility on the one hand and the distinction between the two regarding the quality of work on the other.

We notice the appearance of glass furnaces mainly in Beit Sha'arim and Acre, and with them the various burning materials, such as special plants and special tree barks to praise the production. The Mishnah, for example, distinguishes between a "furnace of Zaggin" (Klim 9:10) and a "pit/or hut of glassmakers". The first was used for cutting the raw materials and turning them into glass, and the second for burning the vessels after their production (Tosefta baba in Tera XNUMX XNUMX). It should be emphasized that the term "furnace" mentioned in the appendix does not appear at all in the mishna, and this teaches us about development and distribution.

Rabbi Yossi HaGalili testifies to the organization of the glass producers (Yerushalmi Avoda Zerah chapter XNUMX m. p. XNUMX. In this source the location "Giro" is mentioned while in the fragmentation of the Geniza the place "Acre" is found under "Giro") as an expression of the professionalization of the industry, probably in a professional association that curates within it , family, the secrets of the industry.

In the production of glass, we distinguish between two periods, whose forms are unique to each period. The first - the one that lasts from the second half of the second century CE, and in which they created glassware in a pattern, in a model, which was problematic in production. These are vessels such as plates and bowls, some of which were brought from outside the Land of Israel, mainly from Alexandria (Yidin, Findings from the Toll Cave, 113-104).

It should be noted that from the huge variety in the shapes of the vessels uncovered in Kharbat al-Mafjar, it is possible to learn about the mold blowing technique and especially about a nice technological upgrade in the creation of the glass loops. From the finds, you can clearly see the appearance of the hallmark characteristic of the period in question, that is, from the XNUMXnd and XNUMXth centuries AD, when it involves complex rotations in the development of the handles of the tools and a precise connection between them and the sides of the tool. It is also possible to learn about the degree of distribution of these tools both in the mass aspect and in the aspect of the geographical space.

Of particular note are the cut Sidonian cups (Tosefta Kelim baba in Tera 10:XNUMX) which, despite their quality, i.e. in the Sidonian style, receive halachic criticism from the sages of the Sanhedrin. "Cut glasses" means the glass sheath surrounding the simulated crown which was cut in the middle of the double vessel and from this two glasses were created at the same time. Those "Sidonian" cups disappear in our sources towards the second half of the second century AD, when the Galilee is well populated after the failure of the Ben Kusva rebellion, and their place is taken by Tiberian cups, and let's not forget that Tiberias, as one of the pair of capitals of the Galilee (opposite Zipuri) was the seat of the presidency. And we are impressed by the fact that prominent Sanhedrin sages such as Rabbi Haya and Rish Lakish, who came to Tire and Sidon on the occasion of their trade there, refrained from buying Tire and Sidon glassware as was once customary, but instead praised the no less excellent Galilean production.

During this period, we were in the second half of the second century AD and onwards, glass vessels were also created by the open blowing method, or by the method of blowing into a mold. The tool is blown into a ceramic pattern and with the innovative use of a forming wheel, and in order to facilitate the cutting, sharpening and polishing, they began to use special flint stones. And so, for the first time, mass production was possible with wide distribution scopes as well as decorated and colorful glassware, more transparent, with more diverse functions and of course more durable. It should be noted that this method allowed more and more artisans to take part in the production process. And hence, by the way, the abundance of evidence about the glassware in the sources of the ancient Land of Israel.

Another proof of the above situation lies in the difference between the Mishnah in its verse on the 2th of the ancestors of the craft (Shabbat XNUMX:XNUMX) which mentions the "builder", and between the Jerusalem Talmud which states "Rabbi Ila in the name of Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish: He who blows a glass vessel, must be a builder (ie according to the weighting method in the pattern). Rabban Dakisarin in the name of Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish: There are things near and far - the size is a vessel of form and the blow is a vessel of glass... All is a builder because it is a builder" (Yerushalmi Shabbat chapter XNUMX XNUMX p. XNUMX).

As a result of the implementation of the mold blowing technique, it became possible for the first time to produce glass vessels on a very wide scale, because the glass was blown into a hollow clay mold divided into several cells and sections, and thus several vessels were created at the same time, and the clay model could be used several times. This is also how it became possible for the example of the production of jugs with flat sides, and similar dishes, which until now were very difficult to produce.

Acclimatization This method marks in our sources the difference between the craftsman and the householder (the layman) who creates the glassware in his home. The Tosumta tells about "tar in a cup and a saucer from which it separates, but behind it it does not separate. What are things supposed to be? From the house of a craftsman, but from the house of the owner of the house, either from inside or behind him, it is a barrier..." (Tosefta Mikvaot 15:XNUMX). Apparently it was a cryptic practice, but its value was that it was discussed in the Sanhedrin and Kabbalah Gushpanka, which concerned the preference of the artist for obvious reasons. Here, as in many other cases, we are talking about a kind of regulation of the imagined "Standards Institute", or if you like - the guide of the "professionals". It turns out that on the shoulders of the craftsman, either as an integral part of a professional association or as an activist in a regulated workshop, there was a lot of responsibility both in the field of production, marketing, the development of the craft in general and even regarding the rights and duties of workers at that time.

The implementation of the aforementioned method caused, among other things, the improvement and refinement of the tools themselves. It is about a group of vessels, the special feature of which is that inside a large vessel, on its bottom, another vessel was placed. The vessel was prepared separately and inserted into the large vessel, while the glass was hot, and before the top of the large vessel was molded into its final shape. This complex operation required high technical ability in blowing the glass.

Despite all this, they continued to create decorated plates, as found for example in Beit Shaarim, which indicate a fine technique in production (Dan Barag, Beit Shaarim, III, pp. 164-149).

Among the blown glassware is the "Galili pot" with a wide range of production, bowls, "infused glass" (that is, bottles of various sizes for washing, lubrication, and storage purposes. These contained two parts that were created separately from each other and joined/joined later, in which evidence of the perfection of production), jugs decorated with "snake-like threads" and more. Among the other products we will find the "Ispeklaria" (such as in general the finds of the Toll Cave revealed two copper mirrors, coated with tin, their handles were placed in a wooden case. The mirrors were fixed in one part of the case with three nails stuck in the ends of the discus. Yigal Yadin believed that this method of a composition is mentioned in the appendix of the Book of Israel 7: "And they made an aspacleria, lest it be fixed with a nail." My teacher and rabbi Prof. Shmuel Safrai assumed that it was a transparent stone or glass, through which one could see clearly or dimly, but it is not a mirror here and alludes to its use as a stopper In light of the Halacha's allusion that it is permissible to open on Shabbat rectangles of windows, which have espaklaria, just as it is permissible to open a dozen windows).

Other tools were the table, the file, the jet, the funnel, the lantern, the saucer and more. It should be noted that the saucer was created from "balls", meaning a lump of molten glass. The thin-walled glass saucer was created by blowing, while "form glass vessels" (of different shapes) were created by "growing", that is, by wrapping glass threads or strips of clay around a known pattern of the same shapes, or by casting the glass To the clay, when it is in a liquid state into known patterns, and from this we find in Yerushalmi a text such as: "The glass-blower must be a builder... the size is a tool of form and the glass-blower, the one who makes a vessel in a pattern, is all a builder because he is a builder" d). It is possible that the artisans did not always create the glass themselves, but bought it when it was already prepared in the form of "bullets" by the glass producer and the merchants moved it from place to place and sold it by weight, according to special scales.

In Sage sources there are evidences of the weighing devices such as "Zaggin's tube" and "glass makers" as well as a clear distinction between white glass which is more expensive than gold and colored glass which is cheaper.

And we will end with two comments: one - we find many analogies and parallels to the glass products of the Land of Israel in Western Europe of the third-fourth centuries AD, such as the products of Gersh's factories, such as the jugs decorated with snake-like threads and more. and their analogies in the Rhine region, knowing that in this region there was a considerable glass industry. This teaches, similarly, about Israelite glass makers who migrated to the western provinces of the Roman Empire to establish more houses for glass and/or to refine them. Also, maybe the glass products from the Land of Israel were exported to Western Europe and its center, and this is another proof of the quality of the Israeli product. And perhaps, as we showed in the chapter on ceramics, the Roman authorities in Israel actually encouraged the development of the same production method that characterized Western Europe with regard to the creation of certain glass vessels with their various decorations and ornaments. And it is possible that this is related to the reality of Roman glass-making houses in the Galilee.

Second - the glassware industry served as a side industry for diverse products such as oil, wine, perfumes, spices and more and vice versa. This situation naturally increased the refinement in the production technique of making the tools and their versatility.

This phenomenon indicates a prominent trend of a tendency for maximum - intensive exploitation of the potential of the raw material and its resources. And which therefore we can easily find settlements where many and varied products were produced such as Tiberias, Beit Shaarim, Acre, Beit Shan, Gersh and more.