During the first centuries AD, an agrarian reform developed that assigned agricultural lands to a central city, and it was necessary to formulate meticulous procedures for every type of buying and selling between Jews and between Jews and Gentiles, something that was reflected in the food markets
In order to cover all aspects of the local trade, an in-depth and extensive study is required. Several aspects and methods of the problems involved in this trade have already been reviewed above, being intertwined and intertwined with the issues of the city, markets, finances, and the like. I have chosen here to highlight several events involved in the life of commerce:
• "Jurisprudence" on the groceries and products - the Mishnah provides that "there is no Puskin on the fruits on the fruits (there is no stipulation with the seller and the money is given to him immediately so that he will give the buyer a fixed amount of fruits for them when they are ripe) until the gate is released (the fixed price of the fruits, lest they become more expensive and be found because he sold them cheaply because he advanced their price to him), the gate came out, Fuskin (even when the seller has no fruit to sell) and even though this (the seller) has none, this one (other people, and can now buy from them anywhere), was he (the seller) First to the reapers (and it is found that the fruits are already in his possession, but the price has not yet been determined), he rules with him (the buyer at whatever price he wants) on the gaddish (the grain in the gaddish, even though its work is not yet finished since the taker can take it immediately) the seller of his grapes and they are gathered in a pestle) (so in the text), and on the pestle of olives (and determines with him about the oil, the seller crushes his olives and they are gathered in the pestle) (so in the text) and on the eggs (the eggs of the mortar - sticky clay) that the maker (the ceramist on his vessel) makes, and The lime is deposited in the kiln and with it, the garbage (accumulated in the garbage) is used all year round. Rabbi Yossi says: There is no Puskin on garbage until it has garbage in the garbage. And sages allow, and he rules with him as the high rate (that is, as the cheap rate, which gives many fruits for little money, if the rate has not yet been determined and the buyer gives money to the seller for the fruits that he will give him according to the expected rate, he rules with him that if the rate varies from high to low, he will give him according to the rate the cheapest). Rabbi Yehuda says: If I fly, even though he did not settle with him as the high gate, he can say: Give me one like this (as the cheap gate), or give me my own (and I will take them as the cheap gate)" (Mishnat Baba Metzia 7:XNUMX).
From this text we learn, as we have seen in the previous chapters, that there are discussions in the Sanhedrin that are intended to intervene in matters of buying and selling, down to the smallest details and the various cases, which probably required the members of the Sanhedrin to demonstrate proficiency in quite a few economic and social topics and areas. This was due to requests from locals to the authority of the Sanhedrin and the physical involvement of some members of the Sanhedrin in this matter. However, it should be noted that the degree of enforcement of the Sanhedrin's decisions was a result of the Sanhedrin's influence on the various communities throughout the country, which turns out in many cases to have been little if any at all. In any case, a problematic effect also arose from the nature of the Sanhedrin legislation, which was not always conclusive and decisive.
And what does the Tosefta have to say about this? This emphasized that there is no Puskin on the Gaddish, the Abit, and the Matan, even though the gate did not come out; Because there is no puskin on a creator's eggs until they are done and Rabbi Yossi clarified that here we are dealing with "those who smoke in white dirt, but those who smoke in black dirt, such as Kfar Hanania and its companions (those within the above-mentioned area), Kfar Shihin and its companions are allowed to thorn, although there is no This has this; Because "there is no Puskin on the milk and the gizzin, except until they do (the milking and the gas are done). Started milking allowed to thorn. He started to shave, he is allowed to thorn"; Because "there is no Fuskin neither on the chicks, nor on the pullets, nor on the fish in Tiberias, nor on bundles of straw. But Foskin about the eggs and the birds and the fish in all other places, and about bundles of wood. This is the rule: whoever has a thresher, mows (determines) with him (with the buyer) as the gate of the thresher, and whoever does not have a thresher mows with him as long as he wants" (Tosefta baba Metzia 5:1-XNUMX).
In the Babylonian Talmud on the matter under discussion we read: "Rabbi Assi said, Rabbi Yochanan said: There is no Puskin (judgment) on a gate in the market. Rabbi Zira said to Rabbi Assi, Rabbi Yochanan said: Even this (in Tiberias) kirodmus (the size of the Greek stadium or hippodrome). He said to her: Rabbi Yochanan did not say, but in the (common) market of towns, without the decrees of the Teraiyoh (which they did not determine about)..." Baba Metzia XNUMX p. XNUMX) and according to the Jerusalem Talmud (Baba Metzia chapter XNUMX, XNUMX, p. XNUMX) ) It was emphasized that "Rabbi Yochanan says: All the towns adjacent to Tiberias, because a gate of Tiberias Puskin (Lauro) came out", probably in light of the decision of the agronomist - the supervisor of the markets on behalf of the municipal authority. Probably in light of the desire to regulate the economic activity in the city and its districts in view of the fear of economic lawlessness.
From all of the above passages it can be seen that these problems began to emerge from the Usha period, after the revolt of Ben Kusaba (135 CE onwards), when central cities acquired a controlling status over their urban and agricultural domains, in terms of a cohesive economic unit, to the point of a kind of autarky. We have already discussed above, in the topics of agriculture, the development of the agrarian economy, which raised various problems concerning the early ripening of products, and alongside them similar problems on the artificial-industrial level with the concentrated intensive processing of various products.
All of the above mentioned conjure up a picture of industrial-agricultural, urban and rural centers in which lies proof of a great influence on the prices of produce and its prices. In these centers and authorities, the owners of the lands and estates of all kinds, as well as the owners of property and the wealthy alike, were subject to price discipline, and this is what prevented the abysmal contrast between them and the chain of frictions that prevailed between them until now and which of course interfered in this way with the management of the normal and healthy economic life.
And so, it should be noted, an important step was taken to create a modus vivendi in the variety of normal economic relations of the city and its area, and Sages, for one of many times, supported that important process that carries many meanings and consequences.
• Trading with foreigners - from Ben Kusva's rebellion onwards, from the time when we witnessed the growing number of foreigners in the cities and villages, and at the same time - Jewish population in the cities, it was quite expected that we would encounter a set of problems that arose during the creation of social and economic relations between the two peoples, and for example - "the placer The foreigner in his shop, even though he goes in and out - is allowed (the wine in a barrel). And if it is announced that he is sailing (to a distant place) so that he will stop (the wine is forbidden due to a hole that has been created) and stop (the hole) and dry (and dry the barrel), Rabbi Shimon ben Gamaliel says: So that he will open (the whole corpse), and dry (in another body) and dry ( The dead body shall be wiped away)" (From the Year of Avodah Zerah 4:XNUMX). In any case, it is worth noting that the complex set of relations between Jews and foreigners required the members of the Sanhedrin to draft a special treatise in the Mishnah, the Tosefta and the Talmud called "Foreign Work".
From the Jerusalem Talmud we learn something interesting as follows: "It is forbidden to sell flutes of foreign worship. If they were to raise wages to the state (a central city, probably the city of the polis), even though they are needed for foreign work, it is allowed to sell them. A shop of foreign work is not allowed to be rented. If she were to raise a salary for the state, even though it is necessary for foreign labor, it is permissible for her to be hired" (Foreign Work, Chapter XNUMX, MGXNUMX, p. XNUMX). We have before us, as in many other cases, lenient instructions of the Sage, even in a covert or overt context for foreign work. The concessions were intended to create a modus vivendi between foreign Jews, to make it easier for Jews to integrate in foreign polis cities in work and business while emphasizing the legality of the business towards the local government of the polis and the Roman authorities.
For those who follow these traditions, the creation from the mouth of Rabbi Yossi ben Chalfta is presented in this language: "Come and see how hidden are the eyes of usurers." A man calls his friend an idolater and exposes adultery and sheds blood, asking us to fall into his life with him. And he brings the biller (licensed official) and the quill and the ink and the bill (the official document) and the witnesses and says: come and write on him that he has no part in the one who ordered the interest, and write and bring it up in the courts (in one of the courts)" (Tosefta Baba Metzia 17:XNUMX). This condition suggested the necessity of transferring the bills through an official Greek, Hellenistic, or Roman office/court, and we have already heard the voices of Sages above regarding everything related to "courts of foreigners". However, in light of the settlement of Jews in foreign cities, and against a background that The production policy of the Roman emperors mainly from the second half of the second century AD The above tradition can be interpreted as a certain supervision by the Roman Empire of the trading business in the foreign cities (the cities of the polis) for clear reasons and considerations and the Jewish Halacha for understandable reasons put up with this phenomenon. It is also accepted On me, as I do with many other cases, that we never learn about them in terms of presenting information and understanding that we should not face these phenomena.
Accordingly, in my opinion, the above should be linked with the following creation embedded in the Talmud literature "Tanya: They go to a fair of foreigners and take (buy) from them livestock, slaves and maids, houses and fields and vineyards, and write (both the buyer and the seller) and up in the courts (courts) of them (the local, urban ones), because he is like a savior from their hands" (Avodah Zerah 5, p. XNUMX) Here too, as in many other cases, the Halacha finds a well-known excuse of "restoring the Sabbath to its owners", just to legitimize economic transactions with the population in the cities of the polis. And when Rabbi Yossi mentioned the "old values of Zipori" (from Kiddoshin Year XNUMX, XNUMX), we were the official archive of the city of the Galilean Polis and its official name was "Diocesaria", and we are talking about the supervisors of the old archive who were entitled to sign and approve the bills that were brought before them) and Rabbi Yossi , so similar, saw this reality before his eyes.
In the period in question, which is the peak of the flourishing of craft and industry in the city and in the village, ask sages to encourage it by a long series of laws regarding loans and including financial transactions with the foreign populations in the cities and villages, both from economic and social motives. And in this spirit, the Jerusalem Talmud testifies that "Rabbi (Yehuda the President) said: The aforesaid inhabitant of a Hebrew slave... the aforesaid Tzedek lives on usury, I do not know what his nature is. Israel's escort is from a foreigner's mind, but not from Israel's mind. Israel borrowed from a Gentile and asked to return them to him, another Israel said to him: Give them to me and I will give them the way you give them, it is forbidden. And if they stood with the gentile - it is allowed. And if they were placed in Israel - it is forbidden. Rabbi Yossi said: And he is the one who was placed with Israel. Peaceful Israel borrows from a Gentile and a Gentile from Israel and we will convert, whether they are righteous until we do not convert, whether we convert, the amount of the principal and not the interest. But a peaceful Gentile from Israel and we will convert, if not until we convert they will pay him with a loan, the amount of the principal and the interest. From Shnetagiir the amount of the principal and not the interest. Bar Kafra says: collects the principal and the interest... Israel borrows from a Gentile and a Gentile from Israel becomes his guarantor and is not afraid of interest. Israel that has appointed a gentile guardian (custodian) or center is allowed to borrow from him at interest, and a gentile that Israel has appointed as a guardian or center, it is forbidden to borrow from him at interest. Gentiles who were entrusted with Israel are not allowed to borrow at interest. From Israel that were entrusted to a Gentile, it is permissible to borrow from him at interest. This is the rule: everything that is the responsibility of Israel is forbidden, the responsibility of a Gentile is permitted" (Yerushalmi Talmud Baba Metziya, Chapter XNUMX, XNUMX, p. XNUMX).
All this evidence is interpreted and understood against the background of active trade relations forged between the Jews and foreigners in the Land of Israel during the period in question, and the desire of the Sanhedrin to monitor those transactions on its behalf.
In this spirit, the Jerusalem Talmud tells us that "What will you buy for him as a lesser gate? Rabbi Hagai said (so in the text) Kumi (before) Rabbi Yossi: My gift (in Barita) said (it is said), that it was not bought for him as the lowest price, Dataninan Hatem (as we both said there): (Its monetary values) are permissible. A measure until it has not stopped, its fees are forbidden. If you tell him to buy as the lowest price, even a measure until he did not judge, he will do as you judge, until he did not measure, and his price will be permissible" (Avodah Zerah Chapter XNUMX, XNUMX, p. XNUMX).
The Tosefta tells about "a store of Israel, and Gentile workers work in it" (Tosefta Pesachim 19:2), and about "a store of Gentiles and Israeli workers work in it" (ibid. XNUMX), in an examination of a common specular of economic and social phenomena that the Sages blessed from a bow the considerations mentioned above.
In this chapter, as in its predecessors, we witnessed an economic boom, urban and rural, in the Land of Israel at the same time as not many years have passed since the destruction of the House and a similar period of time since the end of the battles during the Ben Khosva rebellion, both in local trade and in that which deals with the special fabric of connections on an economic and social background between the Jewish population and the the foreigner And the Sages did not stand by indifferently to this phenomenon, but on the contrary discussed their laws in the Sanhedrin in the new winds that were blowing in the region and while expressing considerable knowledge on these issues sought to bring the issue to important stability while proposing and presenting quite a few permits to advance the situation for the benefit of the Jewish public and the Gentiles.
The members of the Sanhedrin noticed the Roman transition from a monetary scale to a gold one. It was a period that experienced economic and social changes, including taxation and land ownership patterns. And until towards the middle of the third century CE and onward, the members of the Sanhedrin knew how to curb various phenomena of instability in various areas.
