During the first centuries AD, an agrarian reform developed that assigned agricultural lands to a central city, and it was necessary to formulate meticulous procedures for every type of buying and selling between Jews and between Jews and Gentiles, something that was reflected in the food markets
In order to cover all aspects of the local trade, an in-depth and extensive study is required. Several aspects and methods of the problems involved in this trade have already been reviewed above, being intertwined and intertwined with the issues of the city, markets, finances, and the like. I have chosen here to highlight several events involved in the life of commerce:
• "Jurisprudence" on the groceries and products - the Mishnah explains that "there is no Puskin on the fruits on the fruits (there is no arrangement with the seller and the money is given to him immediately so that he will give the buyer a fixed amount of fruits for them when they are ripe) until the gate is released (the fixed price of the fruits, lest they become more expensive and found because he sold them cheaply because he advanced their price to him), the gate came out, Foskin (even when the seller has no fruit to sell) and even though this (the seller) has none, This (to other people, and can now buy from them anywhere), were he (the seller) first to the harvesters (and it is found that the fruits are already in his possession, but the price has not yet been determined), he rules with him (the buyer at any price he wants) on the Gaddish (the grain in the Gaddish, even on but its work is not yet finished, since the buyer can take it immediately) in the text), and on the mat of olives (and decides with him about the oil, since the seller grinds his olives and they accumulate in the mat) (so in the text) and on the eggs (the eggs of the mortar - viscous clay) that he makes (the ceramist on his vessel), and on the lime that he puts in the kiln and rules with him on the dung (that has accumulated) in the garbage) all year round. Rabbi Yossi says: There is no Puskin on the garbage until it has garbage in the garbage. And sages allow, and he rules with him as the high rate (that is, as the cheap rate, which gives many fruits for little money, if the rate has not yet been determined and the buyer gives money to the seller for the fruits that he will give him according to the expected rate, he rules with him that if the rate varies from high to low, he will give him according to the rate the cheapest). Rabbi Yehuda says: If I fly, even though he did not decide with him as the high gate, he can say: Give me one like this (as the cheap gate), or give me my own (and I will take them as the cheap gate)" (Mishnat Baba Metzia 7:XNUMX).
From this text we learn, as we have seen in the previous chapters, that there are discussions in the Sanhedrin that are intended to intervene in matters of buying and selling, down to the smallest details and the various cases, which probably required the members of the Sanhedrin to demonstrate proficiency in quite a few economic and social topics and areas. This was due to requests from locals to the authority of the Sanhedrin and the physical involvement of some members of the Sanhedrin in this matter. However, it should be noted that the degree of enforcement of the Sanhedrin's decisions was a result of the Sanhedrin's influence on the various communities throughout the country, which turns out in many cases to have been little if any at all. In any case, a problematic effect also arose from the nature of the Sanhedrin legislation, which was not always conclusive and decisive.
And what does the Tosefta have to say about this? This emphasized that there is no Puskin on the Gaddish, the Abit, and the Matan, even though the gate did not come out; Because there is no puskin on the eggs of a creator unless they are done and Rabbi Yossi clarified that here we are dealing with "those who smoke in white dirt, but those who smoke in black dirt, such as Kfar Hanania and its friends (those within the above-mentioned area), Kfar Shihin and its friends are allowed to thorn, even though there is no This has this; because "there is no foskin on the milk and the gizzin, except until they are done (the milking and the gas are done). He started to milk, it is allowed to thorn. He started to gizz, it is allowed to thorn"; Because "there is no Puskin neither on the chicks, nor on the pullets, nor on the fish in Tiberias, nor on bundles of straw. But Puskin on the eggs and the fowls and the fish in all other places, and on bundles of wood. This is the rule: whoever has a thresher, chops (determines) with it ( with the buyer) as the gate of the thresher and anyone who does not have a thresher mows with him as long as he wants" (Tosefta Baba Metzia 5:1-XNUMX).
In the Babylonian Talmud on the matter under discussion, we read: "Rabbi Assi said, Rabbi Yochanan said: There is no Puskin (judgment) on a gate in the market. Rabbi Zira said to Rabbi Assi, Rabbi Yochanan said: Even a ball (the size of the Greek stadium or hippodrome) this ( in Tiberias) said to him: Rabbi Yochanan did not say, but in the (common) market of towns, without the regulations (which they did not determine)..." Baba Metziah p. 2) and according to the Jerusalem Talmud (Bava Metziah chapter 5:10 p. 3) it was emphasized that "Rabbi Yochanan says: All the towns near Tiberias, because a gate of Tiberias Fuskin (for his light) came out", probably in light of The decision of the agronomist - the supervisor of the markets on behalf of the municipal authority, probably in light of the desire to regulate the economic activity in the city and its districts in view of the fear of lawlessness economics.
From all of the above passages it can be seen that these problems began to emerge from the Usha generation, after the revolt of Ben Kusaba (135 CE onwards), when central cities acquired a dominant position over their urban and agricultural domains, in terms of a cohesive economic unit, to the point of a kind of autarky. We have already stood above , on the issues of agriculture on the development of the agrarian economy which raised various problems concerning early ripening of products as well as similar problems on the craft-industrial level with the concentrated intensive processing of various products.
All of the above mentioned conjures up a picture of industrial-agricultural, urban and rural centers in which there is evidence of a great influence on produce prices and prices. In these centers and authorities, the owners of land and estates of all kinds, as well as the owners of property and the wealthy alike, were subject to price discipline, and this is what prevented the The abysmal contrast between them and the chain of frictions that prevailed between them until now and which of course interfered in this way with the management of normal economic life and the healthy.
And so, it should be noted, an important step was taken to create a modus vivendi in the variety of normal economic relations of the city and its area, and the Sages, for one of many times, supported that important process that carries many meanings and consequences.
• Trading with foreigners - from Ben Kusaba's revolt onward, from the time when we were witnessing the increasing multiplication of foreigners in the cities and villages, and at the same time - Jewish population in the cities, it was quite expected that we would encounter a set of problems that arose during the creation of social and economic relations between the two peoples, and for example - "the placer the foreigner in his shop, even though he goes out and in - it is permissible (the wine in a barrel) and if it is announced that he is sailing (to a distant place) in order for him to stop (the wine is prohibited due to a hole that has been created) and to close (the hole) and wipe (and wipe the barrel), Rabbi Shimon ben Gamaliel says: so that he opens (the whole corpse), and pours (with another corpse) and wipes (the corpse will be wiped)" (From the Year of Avodah Zerah 4th XNUMX). In any case, it is worth noting that the very complex set of relations between Jews and foreigners required the members of the Sanhedrin to draw up a special treatise in the Mishnah, the Tosefta and the Talmud called "Foreign Work".
From the Jerusalem Talmud we learn an interesting thing as follows: "The seller of the flutes of foreign work is prohibited. If they were to raise wages to the state (a central city, probably the city of the polis), even though they are necessary for foreign work, the seller is permitted. A shop of foreign work is prohibited for rent. If she were to raise wages for the state, even though she needs foreign labor, her wages are allowed" (Foreign labor, Chapter IV, p. d) We have before us, as in many other cases, lenient instructions of sages even in a covert or overt context for foreign work. The concessions were intended to create a modus vivendi between foreign Jews, to make it easier for Jews to integrate in foreign polis cities in work and business while emphasizing the legality of the business towards the local government of the polis and the Roman authorities.
The follower of these traditions has before his eyes the creation from the mouth of Rabbi Yossi ben Halfta in this language: "Come and see how hidden are the eyes of usury lenders. A man calls his friend an idolater and exposes indecency and sheds blood, asking us to fall with him to his life. And she brings the habeler (licensed official) and the quill and the ink and the bill (the official document) and the witnesses and says: Come and write on him that he has no part in who commanded The interest, and it is written and raised in the courts (in one of the courts) (Tosefta Baba Metzia 17:XNUMX). This condition suggested the necessity of transferring the bills through an official Greek, Hellenistic or Roman office/court, and we have already heard the voices of the Sages regarding everything involved above. In the "courts of foreigners", however, in light of the settlement of Jews in foreign cities, and against the same background as the production policy of the emperors The Romans mainly from the second half of the second century AD can be interpreted as a certain supervision by the Roman Empire of the trading business in the foreign cities (the cities of the polis) for clear reasons and considerations and the Jewish Halacha for understandable reasons put up with this phenomenon. It is also acceptable to me, as I A practice regarding many other cases, which we never learn about in terms of presenting information and understanding that one should not face these phenomena.
Accordingly, in my opinion, the above should be connected with the following creation immersed in the Talmud literature "Tanya: They go to a fair of foreigners and take (buy) from them livestock, slaves and maids, houses and fields and vineyards, and write (both the buyer and the seller) and up in the courts (courts) of them (the local, urban ones), because he is like a deliverer from their hands" (Avodah Zerah 5 p. XNUMX) here as well as in many other cases The Halacha finds the well-known excuse of "restitution is usurpation of its owners", just to legitimize economic transactions with the population in the cities of the polis. And when Rabbi Yossi mentioned the "old values of Zipori" (from Kiddoshin Year XNUMX, XNUMX), we were the official archive of the city of the Galilean Polis and its official name was "Diocesaria", and we are talking about the supervisors of the old archive who were entitled to sign and approve the bills that were brought before them) and Rabbi Yossi , so similar, saw this reality before his eyes.
In the period in question, which is the peak of the flourishing of craft and industry in the city and the village, ask the Sages to encourage it by a long series of laws regarding loans and including money transactions with the foreign populations in the cities and villages, both from economic and social motives. In this spirit, the Jerusalem Talmud testifies that "Rabbi (Yehuda the President) said: The aforementioned resident is a Hebrew slave... the aforementioned Righteousness lives on usury, I do not know what his nature Israel's escort is from a foreigner's mind, but not from Israel's mind. Israel borrowed from a Gentile and asked to return them to him, another Israel said to him: Give them to me and I will give them the way you give them, it is forbidden. And if they stood with the gentile - it is allowed. And if they were placed in Israel - it is forbidden. Rabbi Yossi said: And he is the one who was placed with Israel. Peaceful Israel borrows from a Gentile and a Gentile from Israel and we will convert, whether they are righteous until we do not convert, whether we convert, the amount of the principal and not the interest. But a peaceful Gentile from Israel and we will convert, if not until we convert they will pay him with a lender, the amount of the principal and the interest. From Shnetagiir the amount of the principal and not the interest. Bar Kafra says: collects the principal and the interest... Israel borrows from a Gentile and a Gentile from Israel becomes his guarantor and is not afraid of interest. Israel that has appointed a gentile guardian (custodian) or center is allowed to borrow from him at interest, and a gentile that Israel has appointed as a guardian or center, it is forbidden to borrow from him at interest. Gentiles who were entrusted with Israel are not allowed to borrow at interest. From Israel that were entrusted to a Gentile, it is permissible to borrow from him at interest. This is the rule: everything that is the responsibility of Israel is forbidden, the responsibility of a Gentile is permitted" (Yerushalmi Talmud Baba Metziya, Chapter 5, 10, p. 3).
All this evidence is interpreted and understood against the background of active trade relations forged between the Jews and foreigners in the Land of Israel during the period in question, and the desire of the Sanhedrin to monitor those transactions on its behalf.
In this spirit, the Jerusalem Talmud informs us that "What will you buy for him as the lowest price? Rabbi Hagai said (so in the text) Kumi (before) Rabbi Yossi: My gift (in Barita) said (it is said), that we did not buy it for him as the lowest price, Dataninan Hatem (as we both stated there) : The seller shall pay the foreigner (the price) until he does not measure, his fees (monetary values) are permissible Ruling, his fees are forbidden. If you tell him to buy as the lowest price, even a measure until he has not ruled, he will do as you have ruled, until he has not measured, and his fees will be permissible" (Avoda Zerah Chapter 5, p. 1).
The Tosefta tells about "a store of Israel, and Gentile workers work in it" (Tosefta Pesachim 19:2), and about "a store of Gentiles and Israeli workers work in it" (ibid. XNUMX), examining a common specular of economic and social phenomena that the Sages blessed from a bow the considerations mentioned above.
In this chapter, as in its predecessors, we witnessed an economic boom, urban and rural, in the Land of Israel, at the same time as the passing of not many years since the destruction of the House and a similar period of time since the end of the battles during the Ben Khosva rebellion, both in local commerce and in that which deals with the special fabric of connections on an economic and social background between the Jewish population and the the foreigner And the Sages did not stand by indifferently to this phenomenon, but on the contrary discussed their laws in the Sanhedrin in the new winds that were blowing in the region and while expressing considerable knowledge on these issues sought to bring the issue to important stability while proposing and presenting quite a few permits in order to advance the situation for the benefit of the Jewish public and the Gentiles.
The members of the Sanhedrin noticed the Roman transition from a monetary scale to a gold one. It was a period that experienced economic and social changes, including taxation and land ownership patterns. And until towards the middle of the third century CE and onward, the members of the Sanhedrin knew how to curb various phenomena of instability in various areas.
