The economy in the Roman period also included raising meat, fat animals (cattle) and thin animals (sheep). They too were required to give them as a tax to feed the large Roman forces that were staying here
The pasture, i.e. a thin and coarse animal, found many and rich expressions in sage sources, and for several reasons:
First - the thin animal (such as a goat) was used in the wool industry, which we hear about on a significant scale from the recovery of the economy after the Great Revolt (73 CE) and reaching its peak during the time of Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi, this is the equivalent of the era of the Syrian Empire in Rome - the end of the second century CE onwards, and which was characterized by the increase of production forces throughout the Roman Empire.
Second - in the era of the Suri, the province became the largest producer in the Roman economy, including the main cities in it, which are called in the language of the Sages as "states", "states". In this framework, the Presidency was obliged, for example, to supply stud cattle, including meat, to the imperial court.
Thirdly - after the suppression of the great rebellion, and especially the rebellion of Ben Khosba, the Roman army units in the province multiplied, and according to a rough estimate, these reached over 40,000 soldiers, and their scope increased following the battles between Septimius Severus and Pascanius Niger at the end of the second century AD. To this numerical scope was added the Roman bureaucracy, which greatly increased, among other things, the consumption of wool products on the one hand and meat and dairy products on the other.
Fourthly - from the second half of the second century AD, the testimonies of sages regarding the various, regular and frequent taxes as well as forced services and in particular the angriats, which on the one hand intended - the provision of supplies for the economy of the Roman army and the Roman bureaucracy in the province, and on the other hand - the duty of service of man and beast for the purpose of the cargo , the transport and transportation (cursus publicus). In other words - on the one hand - the need for a thin animal and its products and on the other hand for a coarse one and its products. In order to meet these demands, which, as mentioned, increased in the second century AD, the economy was obliged, with the encouragement of the Sages, to cultivate the breeding of these animals, and this in order, and by the way, to pay attention to the internal economy's own need for these commodities and services. And if during this period no claims and answers were found against the Angrias, we can associate this with the embodiment of the same policy that was expressed and revealed in the previous section.
Fifth - in the second century AD, as we have seen in all the chapters of the current series, under the influence of foreign farmers and due to the same productive policy, the "city", the villa rustica in the Roman form, gained further development. It carried an intensive character and mentions the cattle and the water wells as well as special crops - fodder crops, along with the refinement of agricultural tools and aids that improved the amounts of fodder as well as everything related to the issues of the barn and the crescent and the other facilities that made it possible to increase the number of cattle and improve their lives, and as a result production increased.
Sixth - the areas of the imperial estates in Israel served as an ideal pasture, and Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi's estates in Bashan and the Golan serve as a prominent example of this.
Seventh - in the Great Revolt and the rebellions that followed it, the lands of Judah were mainly affected, compared to the lands of the Galilee, and the vegetation that survived there served as a good and reliable basis for the Pyranos of cattle and sheep.
Eighth - the establishment and increase of the urbanization trend from the second half of the second century CE, was to encourage grazing and cattle breeding, and this because the cities and especially the affluent elements in them, served as a significant consumer of meat, milk, wool, leather, and the like.
Ninth - raising livestock required a considerable investment of capital, and in the period in question we are witnessing the enrichment of many entities that were able to invest their capital in the industry in question, and even to acclimatize those animals that were brought so far outside the borders of the province.
A. the shepherds
We read in the Mishnah that shepherds are among those disqualified from witnessing. The reason for their disqualification stems from the suspicion that they are "grazing in foreign fields" literally and figuratively. However, towards the middle of the second century AD, a new line emerges, more positive towards the shepherds, whether only hinted at or clearly, and such a learning that towards the end of the second century the attitude of the sages towards the shepherds changed and was mainly positive.
In the Jerusalem Talmud we learn that in the law the answer of those who "return to those who know" (Bava Kama XNUMX:XNUMX) demonstrates regarding the tax collectors and tax collectors and excludes the shepherds. It must be assumed that from the beginning of the prohibition the Sages were referring to the herders of thin animals, such as goats, and not the rough ones, however, the attitude changes for pragmatic reasons mainly after the rebellion of Ben Kusva and onwards. It seems, in my opinion, that the reason for this lies mainly in the basis of organization and supervision of the shepherds' work and especially in regards to its integration in a controlled manner into the mixed economy.
This proves, by the way, that agriculture is stable and planned in a way that is highly adapted to the migration of livestock, and not to mention, as we will see below, the enormous importance of livestock to the agricultural economy in Israel.
However, this does not mean that they have stopped seeing the shepherds as robbers (a phenomenon that began from the beginning of mankind to the present day, and it is difficult for me not to recall the musical "Oklahoma" by Rogers and Marsh(S)Tine regarding the widespread quarrels between the cowman and the cowboy, in a musical section So strong and impressive is the surfer to different areas of life and is accompanied by the seemingly innocent sentence, or not - they should be friends).
Of course, this does not mean that they have stopped seeing the shepherds as robbers. However, as we have seen above, we can perhaps very carefully parallel this particular change to the same change in the attitude towards, at least, some of the customs officers and collectors for the better within the same normalization in the life of the people and the same complementary and loyal position towards the empire during his time. And this is also in light of the phenomenon of Jews and foreigners herding cattle together, or the handing over of cattle to a foreign shepherd, and even the leniency of the sages in the law in order not to undermine this situation and even encourage it.
And lest, even within the same regulations of Rabbi Yehuda the Hanasi regarding grazing, and according to him "a single animal shall not graze" (Kiddoshin 14:XNUMX), for reasons of concentration on his duty, just like the instruction of the Roman author Varro in his composition "On the Matters of Agriculture", we may perhaps learn about the degree of influence Roman on its regulations.
The sources indicate that the number of shepherds in the herd is not fixed, but for the most part one shepherd was appointed for every 80 sheep and all those shepherds in the herd were subordinated to an older and experienced chief shepherd according to Waro and in the sources of the Sages a quite similar picture emerges. The Roman sources state that it is desirable for a shepherd to be close to his flock, especially in night camps, and in a similar way the Sage sources also recommend that they distinguish between the shepherds associated with farms and those who graze in the ridges and deserts.
It is possible that the difference in our sources between "domestic" animals (related to farms) and "desert" animals, which appears and prevails after the Great Revolt, reveals a hint of evidence of indirect Roman influence, or it is possible that we are talking about Jewish shepherds who grazed in the territories assigned to them by the Roman authorities in Israel, and it also lies here A social aspect, which is important to this industry, is the relationship between the owner of the large estate and the raising of the flock, since the small farmer did not have his own land and lacked the means to support shepherds who are in a distant place. And the "deserts" are related to seasonal migration.
It must be assumed that the shepherds were united in a professional collegium with the encouragement of the Romans for reasons of supervision and payment, taxation and increasing the yield of wool as evidence of this was found in various provinces.
b) Thin animal
It has already been noted above that raising the small animal required a considerable investment of capital, and indeed in Sage sources, and especially after the Great Rebellion, evidence was found of "landlords" who employed shepherds, including the enrichment of bodies that associated, among other things, with the presidency for clear considerations and reasons.
The Mishnah states that "There is no Magdalene a thin animal in the Land of Israel, but a Magdalene in Syria and in the deserts of the Land of Israel" (Mishnat Baba Kama 7:11), and in the Tosefta we see that "why did they say (Q) There is no Magdalene a thin animal in the Land of Israel, because a thin animal is brought in from outside the Land For the land, even though they said - there is no Magdalene a thin animal in the Land of Israel, but she is first Magdalene for the pilgrimage thirty days before the Feast of Our Son thirty days and she shall not go out and shepherd in the market, but she shall be tied to the knees of the bed" (Tosefta Baba Kama XNUMX:XNUMX).
On what background was the aforementioned ban born? Probably on a clear economic background, that is, damage to the agricultural economy as a result of the herds of thin cattle spreading over the farmers' fields and their plantations and causing a lot of damage to the crop. The exclusion regarding Syria and the deserts was due to the lack of Jewish settlement density in those areas.
It is possible to distinguish three stages of the application of the prohibition: the first - in the period after the Great Rebellion when the economy began to recover and there was a fear of damage by herds of small cattle to the crops of the fields and plantations, and this in view of the high temptation of the ambition to get rich quickly among a large number of people, as appears in the sources of Sages: "Who wants to get rich He will deal with a thin animal" (Kholin P.D. p. 14) and to such an extent that farmers will clear their fields for this reason. The second - during the period of President Raban Gamaliel, until the late twenties of the second century CE, when the economic economy of Judah was restored, and there was a fear of harming the craft of woolen ware, sages were encouraged to graze in the deserts and groves. This change is evident in Rabbi Ishmael who claims that "Among the owners of houses in the Galilee was Abba's house." Why a sword? Because we discussed... and raised a thin animal. Nevertheless, we had a grove near the city, a field that cuts between it and the city, through which cattle enter and exit" (Tosefta baba kama 13:XNUMX). The third - after the rebellion of Ben Khosva, many lands and extensive agricultural areas were known to have been damaged during the rebellion. As a result, the Sages had to deal with the problem of raising thin animals again and set limits and limits, and this is how it is said about Rabbi Yehuda ben Baba "... that all his actions were for heaven, except that he raised a thin animal..." (Tosefta Baba, verse XNUMX, XNUMX). That is, despite the quality of his life and his laws, this sage was tainted by breeding the thin animal, and for that reason he was not forgiven. The fourth - with the recovery of the economy in Judea after the rebellion, there was relief once again regarding deserts and groves, and even President Raban Shimon ben Gamliel endorsed raising sheep for fattening and Rabbi Yossi testified to the importance of caring for lean cattle. The late Rabbi Prof. Appelbaum held the view that the breeding of the thin animal on a considerable scale is proof of its origin in Roman influence, and indeed this began to show its signs mainly after the condemned rebellion.
During this period, the field of small animal breeding was defined, for example, to the "Book of Acre" and the desert "Amako", where clear evidence of Roman influence was found in administrative matters such as in the "Book of Acre", and about this I already wrote and published years ago about the "pagi vicinales" (in Jewish Quarterly Review - volume 65, new series, p. 221 et seq.).
We know the connections of the presidency with the villages within the boundaries of Acre and perhaps even territories that were there in the possession of the president Rabbi Yehuda, as reported by the Jerusalem Talmud in the "Pegti" language of the presidency (Avoda Zerah, chapter XNUMX MA p. XNUMX). And if the above hypothesis is accepted that the "deserts" are connected with the "Praideia Caesaris", then the same evidence about the "peers" who had shares in absolute ownership (optimum iure) in the former imperial lands and purchased by Jews from the rebellion of Ben Khosva onwards. After all, the whole above issue gains a special dimension - Roman/foreign influences or remnants of influences in everything related to the organization of grazing and the changing attitude towards the shepherds and breeders of thin cattle in particular. And so Rabbi Yehuda allowed, for example, to grow carobs for the food of the thin animal, and more of the kind of attempts to improve the breed of the thin animal.
Significant in this context is the fact that during this period a regulation was established regarding the burning of the sheaves in the fields, as we will see below.
The problem of the prohibition can be examined in light of the version of the late Rabbi Prof. Shimon Appelbaum, that goats and sheep grazed together in a herd, and if the prohibition refers to both, to small cattle) it is mainly directed against the speculative migration of the large herds, especially towards the foreigners who acquired them in one way or another Territories that were in the possession of Jews after the aforementioned rebellion.
The fifth - during the time of the Syrian Empire, which corresponds to the period of Rabbi Yehuda's presidency, concessions were revealed regarding the breeding of thin cattle, and Rabbi Abba, born in the third century AD, whose testimony is due to the illumination of the period before his time, that is - the Sage's permits to breed thin cattle in the area "such as (He speaks) Yahir, which (its area) is sixteen miles by sixteen miles" (Jerusalem Talmud Baba Kama, Chapter XNUMX, XNUMX, p. XNUMX). The Roman measurements are interesting, and it is possible that here the reference is to the Mekvarf area known as "Jewish Transjordan", which was in the possession of an imperial property, and Chazal sources testify to the cultivation of goats in its area. And the very mention of the field of migration in Roman miles indicates a certain Roman influence.
This source and the testimonies of Sages from the Antonine and Severian periods that facilitate the subject of the thin animal, serve as an important support for the harmony between the pasture and the controlled agricultural economy when it helps this, and it is possible to discern the desire of the sages to bring about a normalization in the economic life of the Jewish economy in the province, "Judea" first and then " Palestine" (after the revolt of Ben Khosba). And in this context it should be noted that the controlled grazing which is important for agriculture (such as fertilization and fertilization) will be described later, and it should also be noted that the raising of livestock required the investment of a lot of capital, so that those sages with their concessions brought, even if indirectly, an opening for the enrichment of various entities in the economy at that time. And perhaps-perhaps this contributed to the connection between capital and government and let's not forget in this context the outstanding example of Rabbi Yehuda's presidency and his close ties with the Roman government.
During this period the Sages forbade bringing/importing thin cattle from Babylon, and the same meaning is obtained with the cessation of evidence regarding the importation of sheep from abroad, and the thin cattle from Syria.
Due to the reasons mentioned above, we witness an important, fine and abundant production of cheese, from the mouth of Rabbi Abba Shaul, for example, and in the Tosefta it appears that "they do not take (buy) from the Ru'in neither goats, nor goats, nor slips of wool... and (those) take milk and cheese from them in the desert ( That is, in areas of controlled cultivation), but not in (regional) settlements..." (Vanderim 5:13) (when this was still in the time of Rabbi Yehuda Hanasi, and then it is emphasized (Tosefta Avoda Zerah XNUMX (XNUMX) XNUMX) that - "One does not take cheese and the Hayneiki house but from the expert", both regarding the nature of the product and its quality, both regarding the place where the animal was raised and in relation to foreign labor).
In the Syrian period, we witness the multitude of testimonies and references in general from sages regarding the thin animal, and thus lies the proof about the extent of the expansion of the thin animal breeding. We understand this, in part, due to the fact that the Severus emperors encouraged the increase of production forces in the provinces. And during this period, when the entire system became the largest producer in the Roman economy, supplying its products to the empire, this encouraged the creation of professional collegia even among the shepherds, and Sage sources testify, as mentioned above, to a long series of regulations/laws that facilitate the breeding of thin cattle in the province .
This period is unique "if" in respecting the burden of the various taxes and services, imposed on the residents, and especially the taxes of various kinds. This was a claim to supply wool to the soldiers and the Roman officials in the land, because of this we witness an increase in the production of woolen utensils. Hieronymus, for example, tells about a special, high-quality wool produced in the Sharon region, in terms of conditions that help the above assumptions. It should be emphasized that the connection between the Sharon region and the wool industries was known many, many years before that historian, Father of the Church, and is "authorized" by the Sages - "They take (buy) from the (working, laboring) women woolen vessels in Judah... and calves in Sharon" Kama 9 XNUMX). Along with the Sharon, the sheep in Meron and Hebron were especially famous, and in general Rabbi Shimon emphasized the importance of the sheep compared to the goats due to their contribution to the wool industry in the province.
A special breed of sheep was developed in Israel that were distinguished by their long and thick wool which was sometimes dragged behind the lamb, when it was placed on a saw or a small cart.
The shepherds distinguished between the sheep according to the structure of their bodies - those whose backs are broad or whose height is as wide as their width, or according to the type of their wool - between those whose wool is thick and hard, which is cut from the beginning of the gas, and those whose wool is soft. One of the finest types of wool is called "Milat" which is probably derived from the name of the city of Miletus in Asia Minor where many sheep and goats were raised and considered to be the finest species, and perhaps this breed was acclimatized in the country. Also known as "filled wool" or "white wool".
The growing of the wool on the sheep's backs until they were sheared was called the "load" and the desired and proper time for the gas was the time of the vernal equinox (the equinox, i.e. mid-March to mid-December) after the sheep begin to "sweat". After shearing, they used to smear the lamb's body with wine and oil mixed with a calcareous solution. Sheep with coarse wool would be sheared during harvest or harvest time.
Some used to shear the sheep's fur twice a year, and as they would shear the sheep, they also used to pluck them. The smallest measure of the sheared wool required in the beginning of the gas, their hair in a portion and a price. The shearing was carried out by special craftsmen called "shearers" who Sage sources used to praise, due to the skill required of them and due to the responsibility of their clean work. These were cut with a special tool called a "clipper". These tried to shear the wool from the lamb in such a way that the fleece remained intact.
The shepherds went ahead and hurried to sell their goods to the wool - they are the wool merchants - even before the operation of the gas according to a financial estimate, such as the cost of shearing a hundred sheep was estimated at one hundred gold dinars, and lo, at the end of their work they would spin the wool.
It should be noted that evidence of the development of the wool craft industry lay in their establishment into professional associations such as shepherds, stitchers, shearers and woolmen.
We will also learn about the importance of the small animal to the economy from the special treatment they invested in these animals, especially goats due to their proneness and exposure to various diseases.
After calving, the lamb would be wrapped in a "wool hood", and blood would be given to the animal and medicine would not be withheld from it even at the right time, so much so that the Sages allowed these animals to be cured with the help of foreign doctors.
stud
The stud issue was extremely delicate. They then knew how to direct the best period and time for breeding. They then counted the days of the cattle's pregnancies and the number of males involved in the breeding, such as "two hundred goats that need twenty. Rachels two hundred that they need twenty rams" (Jerusalem Talmud inscriptions chapter XNUMX L, p. XNUMX) and it should be noted that compared to the Roman sources the simile/identity is really amazing, and the scriptores rustici, that is, the agricultural writers such as Varro, Pliny the Younger and Columella, will attest to this. And again to teach us about the extent of the Romans' influence on the economy of the Land of Israel. It should be noted that a herd of goats numbering fifty individuals is considered a fairly considerable herd in Roman terms, and here we are talking about a herd numbering two hundred individuals. And so it is also possible to learn about the extent of breeding of the thin animal and its proximity to the large estates, and "for example" in the estates of President Rabbi Yehuda (Hon-Shelton).
In relation to the litter, the Babylonian Talmud tells about "painted sheep" (Avot Derbi gave a version of XNUMX:XNUMX, p. XNUMX), we were marked with different colors, (just like nowadays) to distinguish them from the non-Morahans and the Jerusalem Talmud testifies to a red color that was marked in the sheep.
We will finish the subject of the thin animal with a type of animal that was raised and nurtured but only for the sake of the foreign, Roman, Greek, etc. population, and that is the pig. Although the Mishna specifically changes that "... there are no pig farms everywhere..." (Baba Kama 7:XNUMX) and from this we can, if it seems possible, conclude that pigs were indeed raised in special places, separate perhaps, and also from the general law we sometimes learn about them. That is, they asked sages to fence off and restrict the custom of raising pigs in the Land of Israel.
The Tosefta testifies that he is a shepherd who inherited pigs, but does not repeat the prohibition of raising pigs, as does the Jerusalem Talmud. To teach us that the prohibition limit has been removed and/or that due to the explosiveness of the phenomenon, the Halacha is tired of fencing and certainly that "there is no decree imposed on the public if the public is not able/willing to comply with it".
And in this regard it should be emphasized that after the rebellion of Ben Khosva and onward we witness a mention in our sources about pig breeders and their sellers such as - "Of all of them a package was sold to them, and how much was a package?" Rabbi Yehuda ben Fatira (Bathira?) says: There is no less than three menin in a bowl. Sells pigs to the landlord and does not sell them to the owner... sells him pigs and does not fear that he will be tested for foreign work (Tosefta Avodah Zera 21:5). Rabbi Yossi's distinction between a Yishuv pig and a wild pig in terms of condition helps to guide us, and even in the archaeological evidence we find support for the topic of raising pigs in the Land of Israel (Archaeological News, XNUMX, booklet XNUMX, p. XNUMX).
More of the topic in Hayadan:
2 תגובות
Like Rabbi Yossi, and by the way, the scoring of the samach is in zirah and not in hirik, there were many of the sages wearing and dressing the benches of the Sanhedrin and the cloth was too short to contain. And I will only enumerate the pragmatic laws of President Raban Gamaliel said in connection with the use of Aphrodite's bath in Acre and much more
Anyway, thanks for your response.
The silence around the article indicates that the more religious readers do not disagree with what was said.
There will be no gratitude. stillness or storm.
Rabbi Yossi - a pragmatic rabbi, who took into account the post-Holocaust damages and used to enact laws that the public could abide by and avoid disputes.
Therefore, even though the Rabbis and Rabbi Meir Ba'el Hanes are considered spiritual mystics, it seems to me that it is said "Halacha as Rabbi Yossi". Offerings XNUMX A.A. And also "Rabbi Yossi reasoned with him".