Continue the review regarding the geology and features of the moon
Earth's Moon Summary of Findings Part 1
Earth's Moon - Summary of Findings Part 2
rockslides
In at least two places rockslides were detected. One place is on the Apennine Bench (1). This is the only area in Mare Imbrium not flooded by the mare's lava flows. An examination of the front of the Apennines near the Conon crater shows large masses that collapsed as rockfalls when the Apennines were raised above the ground. In addition to this relief there is a small relief of rocks above the lava flows at a distance of 25 kilometers from the northern and eastern smooth rocks of the Apennines. These ridges are probably the upper end of steep slopes of terraces, similar to those found in Copernicus Crater and other craters. All these lumps have degraded down from the rim of Mare Imbrium. A succession of rocks is also found in the Orientale basin.
Until the launch of the LRO spacecraft and the Japanese Kaguya spacecraft, nothing was known about the slopes of polar craters. For example, it turned out that the inclination of the slopes in the Shockleton crater is 36°. It is this slope that caused the landslides (2).
Neon on the ground of the moon
One of the most important surprises in the study of the moon is the presence of isotopes of different elements in the soil such as that of neon originating from the sun. In testing soil samples brought by the Apollo pilots, two isotopes of neon Ne20 and Ne22 were found. The origin of one neon isotope is in the solar wind and the origin of the other neon isotope is in high-energy particles from the sun since they were found deeper in the grains in the soil samples that were brought. What particularly surprised the researchers is the relatively large amount of heavy neon compared to current solar fluxes, which indicates that the sun's activity in the past was greater.
In an attempt to deal with this assumption, a glass metallic block that was specially synthesized for this purpose was placed in the Genesis spacecraft. The block was exposed to the wind of the sun for 27 months. The advantage of this material is that when it is returned to Earth it can be mined using nitric acid vapors. Through this procedure it can be analyzed in the laboratory. The findings were surprising. The neon isotopes were observed immediately. As the excavation went deeper into the grains it became clear that they were identical to the samples brought by the Apollo pilots. There were only two differences between the grains of the
Genesis for grains of Apollo samples. The first difference is that the grains in Genesis do not contain detectable amounts of neon when they were created by cosmic radiation since no significant concentration of them was found during the 27 months of testing. The second difference is that the contraction of gas on the vitreous metal showed isotopes of neon not found in the lunar samples. This finding led to a different conclusion than expected. According to these findings, space weathering and erosion over geological periods reduced the amounts of neon on the surface of all samples brought back from the Moon. The researchers' conclusion was that high-energy particles do not exist in the samples brought from the moon. Isotopes of Ne22 are found deeper in the lunar soil than isotopes of Ne20 and that there is no evidence of the intensification of high-energy particles for billions of years compared to today (3).
geological periods
The accepted way of determining geological ages is using stratigraphy. According to the basic premise of this approach, if you see several layers in a rock one on top of the other, then the lowest layer is the oldest. With the increase in layers from bottom to top, it is possible to determine the order of the periods, which period preceded another period. Age is a relative age in terms of the order in which the layers appear. The absolute age determination, when this or that layer was formed is done using fossils found in these layers and with the help of radioactive measurement techniques. To put it succinctly, the layers are the product of erosive processes, transport of material by water and wind to other places where they were formed and deposited (deposition). These are processes that last millions of years. These measurement methods are good for planets and moons with atmospheres. And if you find a planet that has layers like we know on Earth and does not have an atmosphere, the obvious conclusion is that it did have an atmosphere in the past and that it must be checked when it was.
In bodies that do not have and never had an atmosphere, this working method is not relevant. You have to look for other methods because they don't have layers. An accepted method is to check for craters, if there are any, such as those found on the moon. If, for example, you see a crater with a crater in it, you can tell which of these craters preceded which one. The same goes for craters whose sides are cut by another crater. Emmanuel Mazur (4) presents 7 geological periods and the names he uses are names of craters and lunar basins and these are the periods:
1. The pre-Imbrian period - the period before the formation of the basins. The Imbrium basin is one of them. Here are all the raised and light colored areas.
2. The Apennine period - these are the large basins and the mountains surrounding the elevated areas.
3. The Archimedean period - to this period belong all the craters found on the floor of the great basins.
4. The procellar period - during this period the large basins were filled with lava flows that came from the depths of the moon and the result is basins whose floor is straight. However, it should be taken into account that you will find craters inside craters that were covered by lava flows and craters whose sides were partially covered by lava flows. Here the stratigraphic determination must be extremely careful (comment of the writer-Haim Mazar).
5. The Eratosthenian period - This period is named after the Aratosthenes crater from which come out rays that cover the Apennines and part of the procellar filling material of the Imbrium basin. The conclusion is that Eratosthenes Crater is younger.
6. The Copernican period - a period in which the craters radiating bright substances covering everything that preceded them were created.
7 The post-Copernican period - a period in which craters cover some of the horns of the Copernican period.
The premise of this stratigraphic division is that since its formation, the Moon has been bombarded by asteroids and meteorites of various sizes. Since no remains of giant craters have been found on Earth as mentioned earlier. This assumption is problematic. If we refer to an asteroid impact, then their origin is in the asteroid belt. If we accept the assumption that in the past there was a planet in the space between Jupiter and Mars and which for unknown reasons exploded, the bombardments of the moon and other bodies in the solar system lasted a short time (5), then the stratigraphic division presented by Emmanuel Mazor, even if it is correct, is only valid for the period of the bombardment by the asteroids. What was before and what was after requires reference in itself.
One of the most stratigraphically important photographs taken by the Apollo 15 pilots is the one cataloged AS15-89-12157 taken at the eastern end of the Hadly Rille. You see an exposed section of a layer that is very reminiscent of horizontal layers known on Earth (6). This photograph, although it is the only one of its kind, raises questions about the accepted stratigraphic division of the moon. And if similar phenomena were and will be found in future manned or unmanned flights, it will be necessary to think about a different stratigraphic division. The existence of this horizontal layer and perhaps of additional layers can provoke further thought, although it is of a speculative nature. It is possible that in the past the moon had its own atmosphere. What could support this hypothesis is Saturn's moon Titan. Titan has a gravity equal to that of the Moon - 1/6 that of the Earth and it holds an atmosphere whose density is 1.6 that of the Earth. A previously mentioned possibility is that in the past the moon was further away from the sun than it is today. At that time it had its own atmosphere. For whatever reason it broke off from its orbit and began to approach the Sun until it was captured by the Earth's gravity and entered orbit around it. During this journey, it began to heat up and slowly lost its atmosphere (the hypothesis of the writer of the life-writer Mazar). Supporting evidence for the escape of an atmosphere or its depletion is the case of Mars. Although Mars has a very thin atmosphere, its density is only 1% of that of the Earth, but all the signs indicate that in the past it was denser and the atmospheric pressure was higher than today.
rocks
A common rock on the moon is the breccia (consolidation of angled rock fragments). On the Moon and on Earth, rocks of this type have two sources. One source is fragments of rocks that underwent a short transport before coalescing into one block. They are found at the foot of cliffs. The second source is fragments of volcanic rocks. Crush of rocks thrown into the air during a volcanic eruption and an accumulation of such blocks forms a breccia (7). On the moon, craters are formed due to extremely massive pressures and high temperatures resulting from the impact of asteroids and meteorites. The rocks that were before the impact and those formed after the impact coalesce together. The common minerals in lunar rocks are similar to those on Earth such as Feldspar, Olivine and Pyroxne (8).
A new type of rock is found on the far side of a moon. Rocks of this type are found in isolated areas and they got the name OOS because they are rich in minerals Spinel, Orthpyroxene, Olivine. It is not clear how these rocks were formed, what is particularly interesting is the minimal presence of spinel on the moon. According to the researchers' assessment, it was created with the formation of the moon. The date of its formation is a stage when part of the moon cooled deep within the crust and at a later stage through an unknown geological process reached the surface (9).
Mapping of elements
The Apollo spacecraft that were launched to the moon were built from 3 parts: the toilet compartment, the command compartment and a lander. After the spacecraft entered orbit around the moon, the landers would detach from them and descend to the surface. The command cabin and the toilet cabin continued to orbit the moon. Upon completion of its mission, the lander would take off and connect to the command cabin. In the bathroom there were research instruments that surveyed the moon as it orbited. From these measurements it became clear that the Apennine Bench area is richer in the radioactive element thorium than the nearby lava plains. The samples brought back by the Apollo 15 pilots who landed near this location are rich in the previously mentioned KREEP minerals (1).
A unique phenomenon found in some of the moon rocks are hints of the presence of organic substances. The first evidence is the finding of amino acids (building materials for the formation of life) in the soil samples brought back by the Apollo 11 pilots. The Indian spacecraft 1 Chandryaan apparently found more evidence. This evidence is from a place near the crash site of the Indian spacecraft on the moon after completing its work program. The crash was near the South Pole. What sparked the thought in this direction is the presence of carbon in the rocks. Since the spacecraft transmitted these data in its last moments and close to the ground, it is assumed that these measurements were made with extremely high resolutions. These findings must be treated with the utmost caution since the implications are far-reaching. It should also be taken into account that the carbon and/or the amino acids were brought before the moon by means of comets or meteorites that hit it (10).
When they began to map the explosions of the elements on the moon using the Lunar Prospector spacecraft, the researchers were faced with several questions regarding the origin of the moon and the process of its formation (11) and they are:
1. Based on the findings of the Apollo spacecraft, the Galileo (the spacecraft that was on its way to Jupiter) and the Clementine, they found that the moon is rich in aluminum, uranium, thorium and iron oxides (FeO). If this is indeed the case, it means that those models that claim that the origin of the moon from the earth are not correct.
2. In the upper levels of the moon are found the elements of the KREEP which, according to the accepted assessment, were formed at the seam between the crust and the mantle of the moon in the final stage of the differentiation process between them. The distribution of these elements provides a lot of information regarding the formation of the crust.
3. Identification and definition of geographic units in the maria areas.
4. Identifying the composition of materials in geographic units in the maria areas that are found in the plateaus with the help of the Clementine spacecraft findings and identifying additional geographic units using information about iron and titanium.
5. Identification and definition of petrological units (theory of rocks - research dealing with the description of rocks, their properties, their classification and reconstruction of the conditions of their formation.
6. Searching for anomalous areas where there are unusual chemical compositions that can testify to the depths from which these materials came.
The various findings in Imbrium and Joule show that in these areas the explosiveness of thorium and potassium is not uniform. The thorium and potassium are mostly concentrated on the visible side in and around the westernmost maria. Another concentration is found on the hidden side near the Mare Ingenii located in the Aitken basin. On the visible side, the areas with the largest concentrations are from the southern edge of Imbrium Mare near the Copernicus Crater to the Apollo 14 landing site (Fra Mauro). Additional concentrations are found in Procllarum Oceanus. Even smaller concentrations are found in the eastern maria Crisium-Fecunditatis, Tranauilitatis, Serenitatis. On the hidden side the largest concentrations of thorium and potassium are found around the Aitken Basin in the South Pole, although these concentrations are small compared to those on the visible side. The findings of the Japanese spacecraft Kaguya indicate the presence of the following elements in the soil, which are uranium, thorium, potassium, oxygen, magnesium, silicon, titanium and iron (12).
According to the findings of the LRO, hydrogen, mercury, and other volatile substances were found in the shaded regions regularly. The LRO passed for 90 seconds over the area where the LCROSS crashed and examined the fragments of the plumes (plumes debris) that were blown up as a result of the impact. Hydrogen molecules, molecular CO2, mercury atoms and small amounts of calcium and magnesium in the form of gas were detected. The financial invention was surprising (13).
The LRO findings published in September 2010 indicate that the moon is geologically more complex than previously thought. Silica was discovered in 5 places. Geologically, two types of soil can be distinguished. The plateau areas made of anorthosite (Anorthosite - a bedrock containing calcium and aluminum) and the maria areas made of basaltic rocks containing iron and magnesium (14). It also turned out that the levels are less homogeneous than thought. In a large range of areas, a greater presence of nitrogen-rich soil than that of a crust made of anorthosite was discovered in the rocks. This means that in the past there were changes in the chemistry and the cooling rate of the trend that created the early lunar crust or there was a secondary process (melting and solidification) that repeated itself several times in the early crust. In several places, minerals were discovered that can only be found in rocks that have undergone large-scale trending processes. These are minerals rich in silicic compounds such as quartz, feldspar rich in potassium and feldspar rich in nitrogen, all of these are rock-forming minerals like on Earth. The discovery of the minerals rich in silica compounds in these places is of great importance due to their presence in places that were previously thought to indicate a great and unusual explosiveness of the thorium element. The characteristics of the minerals rich in silica compounds on the moon are fundamentally different from the basalts characteristic of maria and the levels where anorthosite is found.
The fact that these compounds can be observed in different geological areas raises the possibility that these rocks were formed by a large number of processes. In some areas rich in silica, such as the Gruithiusen Domes, which have steep slopes and rugged surfaces, raise the possibility that these lava domes were formed by slow eruptions of viscous lava similar to those found at St. Helene after volcanic eruptions.
In other places, such as the Aristarchus Crater, the spectral signature of minerals rich in silica compounds is confined to the craters and to the materials thrown during the impact of the meteorites that created them, meaning that the penetration into the ground during the impact exposed parts of the plutonic rocks (magma bodies that solidify underground before reaching the surface). The obvious question is how the rocks rich in silica compounds were formed in a body like the moon, when the dominant landscape is plateaus rich in anorthosite and calcium and basalts of the maria rich in iron and magnesium.
Most of the silica-rich areas are in the Terrane KREE Procellaeum, a region on the visible side of the Moon known for its extensive volcanic activity. This led the researchers to the view that the silica-rich material in this region is the result of a hot basaltic trend that penetrated the lunar crust and remelted it. But one of these areas, Belkovich Compton, is on the far side of the Moon far from the PKT and its accompanying volcanism. This location suggests that the conditions that led to persistent flow and volcanism within the PKT would have existed on a smaller scale on the far side of the Moon (14).
The Lunar Prospector performed a comprehensive and global survey of the iron on the surface of the Moon. The reason for this is that the iron explosion can contribute a lot to understanding the evolution of the moon. The presence of iron can provide information regarding the way the moon developed and the changes that took place over time. Both iron and titanium are basic elements in the lava of the moon's maria regions. The concentration of titanium in the basaltic floodplains contradicts the conclusions reached in the past based on the measurements made by the Apollo spacecraft and the Clementine spacecraft. According to the findings of the Lunar Prospector, the amount of titanium is half of what was measured in those measurements (15). These findings are of great significance regarding the study of the moon since the conclusion that is required from them is that those previous measurements were not accurate enough and that with the improvement of the research equipment in the future, the results will be even more accurate. In addition, hardon gases and polonium were found that reached the surface through cracks in the ground created by tectonic activity or earthquakes. Polonium is formed from the decay of radon which itself is a product of the decay of uranium and indeed the discovery of these elements also indicates the reality of uranium in the lunar soil (15).
Visible and ultraviolet mapping of the moon by LRO found regions rich in titanium. As part of the set of equipment for the search for titanium, the technique of photographs from the Hubble Space Telescope was used to measure titanium explosivity in small areas at the Apollo 17 landing site, and indeed this method of work revealed different levels of titanium explosivity compared to the findings reached in the soil samples brought by the Apollo 17 pilots to those made by the telescope the mourning It was found that the different levels of titania correspond to the ratio between the visible light reflected from the moon and the ultraviolet radiation reflected from the ground. The basic purpose was to check if this method would work in large areas of the moon or if there is something special about the landing site of Apollo 17. It turned out that the explosiveness of titanium in the maria areas ranges from 1% to a little more than 10%. At levels, the concentration of TiO2 is less than .1%. These findings are consistent with measurements made in soil sample measurements, explosiveness of 1% (16).
minerals
Most of the minerals on the Moon are similar to those found on Earth. The common minerals are feldspar, olivine (Olivene), and pyroxene. Quartz (2 SiO) is almost non-existent on the moon. Iron is also present, although in small amounts. "Rusty" iron was also found in the samples brought by the Apollo 16 pilots (8). The picture regarding the iron began to change when the Clementine spacecraft began broadcasting its findings. These findings led the researchers to the conclusion that the mantle is made of rocks rich in magnesium and iron. Plagioclase is common in the crust and its explosiveness in the mantle is little (17). This approach was confirmed by the findings of the Indian Chandrayaan spacecraft. This spacecraft found iron-rich minerals in the lunar soil. The place where the iron is found is the Orientale basin. Another common mineral in this area is pyroxene (18).
When the LRO spacecraft passed over Aristarchus Crater at an altitude of 26 kilometers from it, it found pyroclastic beads (Pyroclastic beads - volcanic glass formed during the activity of volcanic eruptions similar to those found in Stromboli and Hawaii) that slid around the slopes of the crater in a configuration of lines and block formations. There may be anorthosite in them like in the highlands and they are silicic (silica compounds) like granite (19).
dust
A phenomenon of dust storms has been observed on the moon. This phenomenon raised many questions since the moon has no atmosphere. So how do these storms form? The phenomenon was first observed by the Surveyor series of landers. Upon their landing, photographs were broadcast to Israel in which a twilight glow was observed above the horizon after sunset. The first reports of astronauts came from the pilots of Apollo 8, Apollo 10, Apollo 15 and Apollo 17. They described a phenomenon that was dragged by them under different names: streamers, bands, twilight rays that lasted 10 seconds before and after sunset. On Earth we see a similar phenomenon - dim rays. A kind of shafts of sunlight and shadow created by irregular clouds at sunrise and sunset. It was clear that the lunar phenomenon was created by clouds of lunar dust. The questions asked are how can this dust rise above the ground without an atmosphere and how can it float? According to a model developed to explain the phenomenon, it appears that the moon has a thin atmosphere of dust particles that are in constant motion. It is important to note that this is not a gaseous atmosphere. The dust particles are lifted from the ground regularly upwards and after a while return to it. The dust is electrostatically charged by the sun in two ways, by the sunlight itself and by charged particles coming from the solar wind. In the moonlight, ultraviolet radiation and X-rays are so energetic that they eject electrons from the atoms and molecules present in the ground. Positive charges are built up until small particles of lunar dust (size of 1 micron and less) find their way out of the crust and can reach heights ranging from a few meters to kilometers. The smallest particles reach the greatest height. They then return to the ground. This process is repeated enough times.
At night, according to this model, the particles are negatively charged. This process occurs when electrons from the solar wind moving around the moon enter its night side. On the dark side the electric charge is stronger than during the day. In the transition areas between the light side and the dark side of the terminator, significant horizontal electric fields can be created. The largest streams contain microscopic particles too small to be seen by astronauts staying on the moon without proper vision equipment. An astronaut on the dark side at sunrise can see a veil extending along the horizon that looks like a flickering screen of light (20).
One of the research instruments that the Apollo 17 pilots left on the moon is the LEAM (Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiments). The device is basically designed to track dust that is spewed from the ground when small meteorites hit it. The goal was to check how much dust is blown up when such impacts occur in daylight and what are the properties of this dust. To the surprise of the researchers, this device counted large levels of particles every morning (morning of the moon), mainly those whose direction of movement is more east-west than those whose direction is from top to bottom and that their speed of movement is slower than such a speed should be in the lunar gravity based on what was observed before. During the day the moon has a positive charge and at night it has a negative charge. The surprise was greater when it turned out that several hours after sunrise the temperature was so high (close to the boiling point of water) that it was necessary to turn off the research device so that it would not get too hot. This meant that electrically charged lunar dust stuck to the sides of the LEAP, darkening its surface and absorbing more heat than reflected sunlight. Unfortunately these observations were short because this instrument operated for 670 hours of the lunar night and 150 hours of activity during the lunar day.
Observations that could be used are those made from Earth. For hundreds of years, reports of strange phenomena from the moon called LTP (Lunar Transient Phenomena) have accumulated. For most of them, the accepted assumption that the origin of this caution is a meteorite impact. Other cautions were red or white that change shape and disappear after a few seconds or minutes. In the sunlight, alcrostatic plumes of lunar dust are returned upwards (25).
Another phenomenon related to dust is lunar swirls, which have been known for 40 years. It seems that these are strands of pale moon dust (crerly - cues of pale moon dust). They swirl and turn around themselves for tens of kilometers on the ground. Each such vortex is perfectly straight and protected by a magnetic field.
One of these eddies, named Raine Gamma, is viewable with a home telescope, indicating its size. These eddies are at the western edge of Oceanus Procellarus. For years it was thought that the Rainer Gamma vortex was a shapeless crater. From the moment that Lunar Orbiter 2 passed over this place, it became clear that it was not a crater. Two more eddies were observed on the far side of the moon. They were seen at the western end of Procellrum Oceanus exactly on the opposite side where Mare Imbrium and Orientle Mare are located. The accepted, albeit unexplained, assessment was that impacts create craters on one side of the moon and create vortices on the other side. In 1972 it became clear that these vortices are magnetized. The two tiny spacecraft that were launched from Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 and which flew at an altitude of 96 kilometers above the ground discovered, as mentioned earlier, patches of magnetic fields on the surface of the moon. The strongest magnetic fields were above the lunar swirls and tens of times weaker than the Earth's magnetic field. The estimate that has formed regarding the origin of the eddies is that they are related to the distant past of the moon when it had a liquid core of iron and a large magnetic field. When a large asteroid hits the ground, this impact creates a cloud of electrically conductive gas that sweeps around the moon pushing the magnetic field in front of it. Finally, the cloud converges at the point on the other side of the impact, creating the crater and concentrating the magnetic field at this point. After millions of years the moon's core cooled and its magnetic field dissipated. Only the strongest spots remained - swirls. This assessment provides an explanation for the bright and creamy appearance of the vortex. According to several researchers, the moon's dust darkens during its long exposure to the solar wind. It could be that the swirls are bright because they are less exposed to the sun. Their magnetic fields deflect the solar wind. If this explanation is correct, then the vortices are actually a shadow of magnetic fields that take on an arcuate shape swirling above them (22).
Careful
Flashes and caution were often observed on the moon. The first time such phenomena were observed was in October 1963 when the telescope in Flagstaff, Arizona was aimed at the moon. What was observed was a strong red glow coming from Aristarchus Crater. It was estimated that the source of this was a glowing light emitted from an active volcano (23).
During two and a half years from 2006 to mid-May 2008, 100 cautions were observed by astronomers. One of the explanations was that they were created due to explosions of meteorites hitting the moon. Each such impact is equivalent in strength to hundreds of kilograms of TNT and can be photographed using a home telescope. The first such discovery was when on 7.11.2005 a block of rock the size of a baseball from Comet Anka hit Mare Imbrium. The result was a strong flash of light. The question that was asked was how substances can explode on the moon since there is no oxygen on it. The explanation given is that the rock blocks move towards the moon at a speed of 48,000 km/h or even more. At such speeds even a grain of gravel can create a crater several meters in diameter. The impact heats the rock and the ground with enough intensity to create a conflagration similar to molten lava. During a meteor shower such as those from the Perseids, when the Moon passes through a dense stream of comet fragments, the rate of lunar flashes can reach 1 per hour. The interesting thing is that even when there is no meteor shower the flashes are still seen. The source is remnants of comet dust and small clumps of old asteroids that hit the Moon in small, though still significant, numbers (24).
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