Gilad Bar-Lev, Israel Astronomical Society
Direct link to this page: https://www.hayadan.org.il/astronautschoose.html
The twenty-first century presents the human race with a new challenge of working and living in space. The achievements of scientists, technicians, engineers and experts who build and operate spacecraft and space stations, are realized with the help of a sophisticated system of selecting astronauts and training them to work in space.
The history of the selection of the first astronauts:
In 1959, the US space agency, NASA, asked the US military to compile a list of candidates who could meet certain carefully defined requirements in its search for the first astronauts. NASA required knowledge and experience in operating jet aircraft and also some background in engineering. The height was limited to 180 cm due to very limited space inside the cockpit of the "Mercury" spaceship, which was already in the planning stages at the time. After many series of screenings, both in terms of physical fitness and psychological endurance, NASA selected seven candidates from an original number of 500 candidates. The seven astronauts were:
To. Gordon Cooper L. Gordon Cooper, Jr
Virgil "Gus" Grissom Virgil "Gus" Grissom
Donald K. Slayton Donald K. Slayton
John H. Glenn John H. Glenn, Jr
M. Scott Carpenter M. Scott Carpenter
Walter M. Walter M. Schirra
Alan B. Shepard Alan B. Shepard, Jr
These are the names that were engraved in the memory of the American nation, and allowed it to look at the stars in a slightly different way. Each of them flew in the "Mercury" project, except for Slayton, who grounded for medical reasons. But 16 years later, he was selected as a crew member of the pioneering project "Apollo-Soyuz", which was actually the first (Russian-American) international manned space flight.
Nine more astronauts were selected in September 1962, and another 14 were added in October 1963. Then the main emphasis was shifted from flight experience to advanced academic qualifications, and the possibility of submitting an application for admission was based first of all on the basis of education. These were the "scientific astronauts", or at least that's what they were called, since the 400 candidates who met the preliminary requirements had a doctorate or equivalent experience in the natural sciences, medicine or engineering. Of these 400 candidates, six were selected in June 1965.
In April 1966, 19 new astronaut-pilots were appointed, and in August 1967, 11 new astronaut-scientists were added to the training program. Another seven astronauts were transferred to NASA when the US Air Force canceled a plan to build a manned laboratory in orbit around the Earth in late 1969, so that the number of astronauts at the end of the sixties reached more than 70 people.
Recruiting candidates in the era of the ferry - late seventies:
The first group of 35 candidates, who intended to participate in the shuttle program, was selected in January 1978. In July of that year, they began a period of training and professional tests at the Johnson Space Center of NASA JSC (Johnson Space Center) in Houston, Texas, in order to move on to the next stage where they will already be appointed for future missions in the space shuttle. This group of 20 scientists and 15 pilot astronauts completed their training and received the status of
Active astronauts in August 1979. Six of the 35 were women.
Over time, and as the missions progressed, NASA began to receive applications from candidates continuously from both military and civilian sources, they were selected as needed, usually every two years, both for the positions of pilot astronauts and for the positions of mission specialists (scientist astronauts).
The selection process of candidates for astronaut positions is designed to identify suitable military and civilian personnel for the various space programs. The required education was at least a recognized bachelor's degree in the fields of engineering, biology, physics or mathematics.
For mission specialist candidates (astronaut scientists), relevant work experience in the field for a period of at least three years after the bachelor's degree was required, but experience could be converted into an additional degree (a master's degree was equal to one year of work experience, and a doctorate was equal to three years of experience).
Astronauts and pilots, on the other hand, had to meet the following requirements before submitting their application:
• At least 1000 flight hours as a jet pilot. An advantage is given to those who have had experience in test flights.
• Ability to pass NASA level 1 fitness and health tests which were actually similar to level 1 tests for pilot applicants in the US military or in the civilian market. These include, among other things, comprehensive vision tests, blood pressure measurements, etc.
• Height between 163 and 193 cm.
Astronaut scientists had to meet similar medical requirements, but with only level 2 fitness tests, which were similar to level 2 tests for applicants in the US military and/or the civilian market. Here we are talking about slightly less stringent vision requirements, blood pressure similar to that of the level 1 examinees and height requirements between 148 and 193 cm.
Candidates who meet these basic requirements undergo an initial screening, followed by a week of personal interviews and comprehensive medical examinations. The recommendations of the committee for the selection of the astronauts are based on the candidate's education, training course and experience, as well as personal skills and qualifications. Since there are still several hundred remaining who meet the above requirements, the final selection is mainly done by personal interviews to select "team players" with skills to work in a group but together with independence and high individual ability, so that they can be excellent team members.
Those selected through this process are attached to the Astronaut Office at the Johnson Space Center for a one to two year training and evaluation program. Civilian candidates who have passed the training period are obliged to remain at NASA for another five years. The astronauts' salaries are calculated according to general salary tables of the federal government, and increments are given according to each person's experience and academic achievements.
Positions in the shuttle crew:
Commander/Pilot astronaut:
An astronaut designated as a pilot astronaut may serve as the shuttle's commander or pilot. The commander has command responsibility for the vehicle, the crew, the success of the mission and general safety. The shuttle pilot helps the commander in the control and operation of the vehicle and may also help in the deployment or return of satellites with the help of the shuttle's robotic arm called the remote manipulator system (RMS).
Mission Specialist Astronaut:
A mission specialist astronaut works in cooperation with the commander and the pilot, and has responsibility for the operation of the shuttle systems, the planning of crew activities, and test and landing activities. A mission specialist studies and specializes in the shuttle's systems, its operational features, the goals of each mission, and equipment/systems support for each of the experiments performed on that flight. Mission specialists also perform "extravehicular activities" EVAs, operate the shuttle's robotic arm, and are responsible for specific operation of experimental systems.
Payload Specialist:
This expert is a person who is not a NASA astronaut (including foreign nationals) who has a defined role aboard the shuttle. He can be added to the shuttle crew if a special activity mission is involved and more than a minimum crew of 5 is required.
The top priority for selecting a TED expert is among NASA mission experts who have been trained accordingly, and in collaboration with the external funder, or the funder of the designated TED, but it is also possible to choose foreign recommended ones.
Although MET experts are not part of the astronaut candidate program, it is necessary to teach and practice them as well for the experiment. All applicants must meet certain physical requirements and must pass a NASA physical fitness test according to the mission classification.
The training of candidates to be astronauts:
Candidates to be astronauts train at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. They participate in classes on the shuttle systems, and various fields of science: mathematics, geology, meteorology, navigation and orientation, oceanography, dynamics of orbits, physics, astronomy, and material processing - and these are just a few examples. Candidates also receive training in sea and land survival, diving and training with space suits.
As part of the training program during the candidacy stages, the astronauts are required to complete a series of military survival training in water, before the flight stages begin, and they must also be qualified to dive in order to continue training for extravehicular activities (EVAs). That is why all applicants are required to pass swimming tests in the first month of their training. For example, they must cross a 3-meter pool 25 times in a flight suit and tennis shoes. The allowed movements: freestyle, breaststroke and sidestroke. There is no time limit. They should also be able to move through water for ten minutes straight.
The candidates are also exposed to situations of high or low atmospheric pressure in special cells, and learn to deal with emergency situations related to these conditions. In addition, they are exposed to microgravity conditions like in space. A specially adapted KC-135 jet plane, capable with a special flight path of producing zero gravity for about twenty seconds. During this short time, the astronauts feel what it is like to be in the conditions of microgravity. The plane immediately returns to normal flight mode, and the process repeats itself, so many times a day.
Astronauts and pilots maintain their flight fitness by making sure to fly 15 hours a month, in NASA's two-seater T-38 aircraft. They accumulate flight hours on a jet plane and also practice landing a shuttle, in an executive plane that has been adapted for the purpose. Mission specialist astronauts fly a minimum of four hours each month.
The training of the selected astronauts:
The astronauts begin formal training for space transportation already during the candidacy year by reading operating manuals and participating in computerized classes on the shuttle's various systems, starting with engines and ending with environmental control.
The next step in the training program is the single systems trainer (SST). Each astronaut is accompanied by a guide who explains to him the operation of each system in the shuttle by using a checklist similar to the one that will be on the shuttle during the mission itself. The list contains information about normal operations of the system and actions to be taken in the event of a malfunction. The astronauts on the SST train on every system in the shuttle, how to identify faults and how to act to correct them. After this part, the astronauts move on to training in SMS simulators (complex Shuttle Mission Simulators). The SMS allow extensive training in all the functions of the shuttle and in all the tasks required in the various phases of the flight: before launch, during takeoff, during the stay in orbit, reentry into the atmosphere and landing. The trainings as part of the phase of The stay in orbit includes the activity of the Payload, various maneuvers and also meetings. Two additional simulators, one on a mobile basis and the other on a fixed basis, are used by the astronauts in their training.
A simulator on a regular basis is used by the astronauts for training on a certain platform and a certain mission and also for training on the take-off and landing procedures. This simulator has a system that projects an image of what the astronaut sees through the window at all stages of the mission, that is, the Earth, the stars, the spacecraft and finally, the landing track. The mission is simulated right from launch to landing.
The propulsion simulator is used by the crew members who fly the shuttle to practice take-off, re-atmosphere and landing situations. The feeling of movement is obtained as a result of a system that allows a shift of the deck plane by 90 degrees to a similar state of takeoff and acceleration.
Astronauts begin their SMS training using generic generic software until they are designated for a specific mission. This happens about ten months before the mission itself. Once assigned to a particular mission, the astronauts train in a simulator on mission-specific training.
During the last 11 weeks, the astronauts also train with the flight controllers at the MCC (Mission Control Center). The SMS and the MCC are connected together in a computer connection in the same way that the shuttle and the MCC are connected in real time. The astronauts and flight controllers learn to work as a team, solve problems and work continuously together. The "flight hours" in the simulator after being assigned to the mission are about 300 hours of training for an astronaut.
In addition to SMS, there are several other training places where the astronauts train part of the time. There is a facility for natural flotation where operations are carried out that simulate the feeling of weightlessness created in space under microgravity conditions. It is also used to plan and test new space station designs and future NASA projects. Also, there is a natural wooden model of the shuttle used by the astronauts to practice the daily routine in space and get used to the environment in which they will live. It is about preparing meals, handling equipment, handling garbage properly, using cameras, and knowing about the experiments. The facility is also used as a training place for emergency evacuation of the shuttle after landing.
There is a model of only the front part of the shuttle without a "trunk", which can be tilted vertically, and is used to practice actions that the astronauts will perform the moment they board the shuttle and escape actions in case something goes wrong on the ground even before the shuttle leaves. A model of the "luggage" compartment alone serves as practice for inserting and removing the mat and an important practice of controlling the robotic arm.
The training reaches the level of an exact imitation of the conditions of the shuttle, so much so that after the launch from the Kennedy space base in Cape Canaveral in the USA, the astronauts claim that the difference is only in the noise from the engines, shaking during the launch, and of course, the prolonged stay in weightlessness, which is difficult to imitate on earth. All other things during the training period copy exactly what the astronaut goes through in space.
The astronaut's mission continues even after he returns with the shuttle to Earth. He was there for several days as part of medical tests and talks in order to draw conclusions from the delay in space and raise options for improving training. In doing so, he actually contributes to the pool of knowledge that NASA has about staying in space.
There is, of course, also the meeting of the team members with the local and international media especially during the flight, and only after a period of rest are the astronauts required to continue their study and training routine, which can lead them to additional missions in the future.
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