Researchers from the University of Bristol have identified 81 volatile organic compounds in thousands of years old mummified samples, showing how embalming materials have become more complex and sophisticated over the generations.
For centuries, mummies have intrigued historians and archaeologists. Now, researchers report that the musty smell characteristic of preserved bodies holds important scientific clues. Rather than simply being a result of the material's aging, it turns out to be a mixture of embalming materials and treated fabrics, documenting how methods have evolved over the ages.
The study was led by chemists from the University of Bristol, who found that the unique smell is closely related to the materials used in the embalming process.
Lead author Dr Vaniwe Zhao, a research fellow in organic geochemistry at the University of Bristol, said: "The findings mark a significant step forward in improving our understanding of Egyptian history and the fascinating ritual of mummification. Our analysis of the accompanying scents has revealed new insights into how this practice evolved over the centuries and became increasingly sophisticated."
A non-destructive method for capturing volatile organic compounds
To conduct the study, the team analyzed the air surrounding tiny mummy fragments, about the size of a peppercorn. Conventional research approaches often involve dissolving samples in solvents, a process that can damage delicate and fragile artifacts. Instead, the scientists focused on capturing the gases that were released from the samples into the surrounding air.
Using solid-state microfiber extraction, combined with gas chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry, they collected and separated the chemicals in the air, known as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), for detailed examination.
The study, published in the journal Journal of Archaeological Science, examined 35 samples of embalming materials and bandages from 19 mummies, dating from 3200 BC to 395 AD, a span of more than 2,000 years in Egyptian history. In total, the researchers identified 81 different volatile organic compounds, each of which provided clues about the materials used and the historical period in which the embalming took place.
Chemical fingerprints of fats, resins, beeswax, and bitumen
Even when found in trace amounts, these compounds could be divided into four main groups, each of which was associated with a specific substance. Fats and oils produced aromatic compounds and short-chain fatty acids. Beeswax produced monocarboxylic fatty acids and cinnamic compounds. Plant resins emitted aromatic compounds and sesquiterpenoids, while bitumen released naphthenic compounds.
Dr. Zhao explained that the chemical patterns changed over time. "Our findings showed that the chemical patterns varied between different historical periods. Early mummies had simpler profiles, dominated by fats and oils, while later mummies displayed more complex mixtures that included imported resins and bitumen. Such materials were more expensive and required more professional preparation as embalming practices became more advanced."
The analysis also revealed differences related to the body part from which the sample was taken.
"For example, samples from the head sometimes contained different patterns than those found in samples from the torso, suggesting that the embalmers used different mixtures for different body parts, perhaps to improve preservation. This is an area that requires further analysis and research to better understand which techniques were used and why," added Dr. Zhao.
Promoting the study of embalming and preservation in museums
Richard Abershad, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Bristol and one of the authors of the study, said: "Our volatile analysis has demonstrated sufficient sensitivity to detect residues at very low concentrations. For example, biomarkers of bitumen have been difficult to detect with previous methods based on soluble residues."
He said, "This approach expands the study of burial customs in ancient Egypt, presenting a clearer and more complete picture of embalming mixtures, material selection, and preservation strategies."
This method could also be important for museums and collections around the world. Air sampling provides a quick and non-destructive way to scan delicate mummies, allowing curators to collect chemical data without damaging them.
Ian Ball, Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the University of Bristol and one of the study's authors, added: "Physical sampling still has a role to play in detailed research, but volatile analysis provides an effective and illuminating first step for studying mummified remains in different collections and periods."
For the scientific article: DOI: 10.1016/j.jas.2026.106490
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